Actitudes y valores del adolescente según dimensiones.

Pre-service teachers are in the unique position of being both the undergraduate or postgraduate level learner and a trainee teacher. Initial teacher education needs to take account of these dual roles. PSTs should be facilitated to develop as both learners, developing their own skills and knowledge of scientific literacy, and as future teachers, developing skills and knowledge relating to teaching for the development of the skills and knowledge of scientific literacy in their own students (Topcu, Sadler & Yilmaz-Tuzun, 2010). There are three different ways that this can be achieved in initial teacher education: teaching only the scientific skills and knowledge required (PST as learners); teaching both the scientific skills and knowledge required (PST as learner) and the pedagogical approaches (PST as teacher) simultaneously; and teaching the scientific skills and knowledge required (PST as learner) and the pedagogical approaches (PST as teacher) separately. These different approaches are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Much of the research into initial teacher education programmes that aim to develop PSTs’ ability to teach using inquiry approaches describe programmes that focus on the PST as a learner only (Topcu, Sadler & Yilmaz-Tuzun, 2010; Bencze & Sperling, 2012). This approach explicitly develops the scientific skills and knowledge of scientific literacy. However, the development of PSTs’ pedagogical skills and knowledge is dealt with implicitly (Lederman et al., 2001). Through increasing their scientific skills and knowledge, it is hoped that this will translate into improved classroom practice. However, research indicates that this approach does not directly translate into classroom practice. PSTs may have good scientific skills and knowledge but be unable or unwilling to implement these in the classroom (Lederman et al., 2001; Buck & Trauth-Nare, 2009).

Another approach described in the literature is to treat the role of the learner and the teacher explicitly, and teach both simultaneously within the same initial teacher education programme (Bencze, 2010; Michalow, 2015). This approach addresses the PSTs’ role as a learner and aims to develop the scientific skills and knowledge of the PSTs through explicit reflection and feedback relating to these skills and knowledge. At strategic points and throughout the programme or module, PSTs will also be asked to explicitly reflect on the teaching approaches used or described (as teacher).

The third approach is similar to the approach described in the previous paragraph because it treats the dual roles of the PST explicitly and addresses each role directly. However, in this approach doing both simultaneously is deemed too challenging for the novice teachers and the two roles are addressed separately (Lederman et al., 2001). In this approach, the PSTs participate in lectures, labs or modules aimed to develop their scientific skills and knowledge as learners and

separate lectures, labs or modules that aim to develop their skills and knowledge relating to implementing inquiry approaches in the classroom.

1.5.1 The PSTs’ role as learner

Most of the research into inquiry in the context of SSI as an approach to developing the skills and knowledge of scientific literacy has focussed on the experience of the learner. Within this, most of the research has focussed on the development of scientific literacy at secondary school level, rather than undergraduate level. It is important that PSTs’ have a sound basis of scientific knowledge and skills to be able to teach scientific inquiry to their students. This knowledge should comprise the “prominent concepts”, “facts and principles” in science but also knowledge of the “processes and nature of science” (Roehrig & Luft, 2004, p. 4). Thus, the skills and knowledge shown in the Framework of Scientific Literacy described in Section 1.2.1 and Figure 1-2 not only apply to learners at secondary school level but also to PSTs who wish to develop these skills and knowledge in their own students.

There is little research with undergraduate level students into the use of inquiry approaches, specifically in SSI contexts, for the development of the skills and knowledge of scientific literacy. Grooms, Sampson & Golden (2014) explored the use of different levels of inquiry in the context of SSI with undergraduate science students (although not PSTs) and drew similar conclusions to the wealth of research at secondary school level. Similarly to much of the research into inquiry in the context of SSI, they looked at the development of skills relating to argumentation and found that these were effectively developed using more open inquiry approaches using SSI contexts (Grooms, Sampson & Golden 2014). The inquiry approach using SSI contexts has been shown to successfully develop PSTs’ skills and knowledge of scientific literacy (Bencze, 2010; Topcu, Sadler & Yilmaz-Tuzun, 2010; Bencze & Sperling, 2012). This indicates that despite differences in age, prior science knowledge and context that the approaches described for use in secondary school contexts (Section 1.4) are suitable for university level teaching as well as secondary schools.

1.5.2 The PSTs’ role as teacher

Section 1.5.1 highlighted the importance of a sound basis of scientific skills and knowledge that is used by PSTs in their teaching. However, research suggests that these skills and knowledge acquired by the PST as a learner do not necessarily translate into classroom practice (Lederman

et al., 2001; Roehrig & Luft, 2004). This indicates that initial teacher education should pay

introduction to this section this can either be done by considering each role simultaneously or separately.

In order to effectively develop the skills and knowledge of scientific literacy in their students, PSTs need skills and knowledge relating to pedagogical approaches to do this. Research suggests that inquiry approaches using SSI contexts are effective in developing scientific literacy. As described in Section 1.4 these approaches are student-centred and collaborative, use investigative approaches, are described according to levels and are assessed formatively and summatively. Inquiry teaching requires strong “student-centred beliefs” and a reflexive approach which is challenging for many experienced teachers let alone for PSTs who have yet to develop strong pedagogical skills and may have fragmented content knowledge (Roehrig & Luft, 2004, p. 20; Buck & Trauth-Nare, 2009). Even if a teacher possesses strong student-centred beliefs and skills and knowledge of science, there are many other barriers to the implementation of inquiry approaches to teaching in practice.

Barriers to the implementation of inquiry, specifically using SSI contexts in practice are wide ranging and include: lack of time, lack of materials and resources, lack of permission or support in school, lack of appropriate pedagogical skills and knowledge relating to these approaches, and lack of self-efficacy relating to implementing these approaches (Roehrig & Luft, 2004; Ratcliffe & Grace, 2003; Bencze, 2010). In the case of PSTs, the lack of pedagogical skills and knowledge, due to a lack of classroom experience, or lack of self-efficacy around their use, is a major restraint to the implementation of inquiry in the context of SSI. Additionally, PSTs may have personally been taught science in a didactic way, rather than through inquiry, and therefore may be conditioned, through their own educational experience, to use a more didactic approach (Bencze & Sperling, 2012). Some of these barriers that PSTs face may be addressed through initial teacher education (Lederman et al., 2001; Roehrig & Luft, 2004).

Research suggests that PSTs’ skills and knowledge relating to pedagogical approaches to develop students’ scientific literacy can be increased through participation in initial teacher education that caters to their dual role as teacher and learner (Lederman et al., 2001; Topcu, Sadler & Yilmaz- Tuzun, 2010). Activities should allow the PSTs to experience inquiry approaches and reflect on their development as learners. They should also be given opportunities to increase self-awareness of their own beliefs and conceptions of teaching, with a focus on inquiry in the context of SSI, through an explicit, reflective approach (Lederman et al., 2001; Buck & Trauth-Nare, 2009). This means that teaching about the pedagogical approaches to inquiry in the context of SSI should be planned for, rather than developed as a result of participation in such approaches (Lederman et

al., 2001). This aims to make the tacit processes and gut instincts that experienced teachers often

rely on explicit to allow the PSTs to more easily implement them into their practice (Buck & Trauth-Nare, 2009).

There is little research that addresses the specifics about how this should be carried out with PSTs in practice. Some recommendations regarding the development of PSTs’ pedagogical skills and knowledge of inquiry in the context of SSI can be gleaned from what little research there is. As part of their initial teacher education programme, there should be explicit discussion of pedagogical approaches to inquiry in the context of SSI. PSTs should be required to plan lessons and schemes of work and develop instructional materials and design resources for implementing these approaches (Lederman et al., 2001; Michalow, 2015). PSTs should also be required to demonstrate their ability to assess inquiry in the context of SSI by planning formative assessment approaches (Buck & Trauth-Nare, 2009). Research also suggests that this should be extended to in-school placement and that PSTs should be required to integrate inquiry approaches into their teaching in practice (Michalow, 2015).

It is important to recognise that even if a PST holds student-centred beliefs, has strong pedagogical skills and knowledge relating to inquiry approaches, self-efficacy relating to their use and strong knowledge and skills relating to scientific literacy (as a learner), this does not necessarily translate into classroom practice (Roehrig & Luft, 2004). Initial teacher education can only address some of the barriers PSTs face when implementing of inquiry in the context of SSI, e.g. increase pedagogical skills and knowledge as teachers and skills and knowledge of scientific literacy as learners. Literature recommends inquiry in the context of SSI as an approach for the development of scientific literacy. This is also advocated by policy. However, in teachers’, including pre-service teachers’, classroom practice complex barriers often prevent implementation of these approaches. This is observed as gaps between the research, policy and practice. The studies carried out in this thesis aim to contribute to the literature regarding the development and assessment of scientific literacy, with a focus on inquiry in the context of SSI. The case studies are based on practice in secondary school and initial teacher education and so aim to narrow these gaps between literature, policy and practice.