Aspectos semánticos

The research questions are broken down into more specific sub-questions and matched to particular research methods to provide an overall table that summarises the design of the thesis in a snapshot. Each chosen method is then justified one by one by briefly discussing its utility, strengths and weaknesses.

Cyprus as a case study

Case studies allow for temporally and spatially bounded in-depth and intensive analysis of a single ‘unit’ or a ‘ phenomenon’ (Gerring 2004:342). Even though single case study analysis has been subject to a number of criticisms that include issues concerning methodological rigour, researcher subjectivity and external validity, these criticisms are not unique to case studies per se but more specific to chosen methods of analysis22_{. One particularly criticism}

specific to single case studies is the inter-related issues of reliability, replicability and generalizability (Flyvbjerg 2006). How can one case reliably offer anything beyond the particular? Although single case studies contain no greater bias toward verification than other methods of inquiry23 and although this thesis and fieldwork is potentially replicable, the criticism of generalisability is of little relevance when the intention is particularisation, and the objective is based upon conducting explanatory research rather than theory-testing and theory-building. As such, this thesis is neither interested in ‘proving’ or ‘disproving’ theories and hypotheses nor in making predictions. Single case studies also offer a more practical advantage as they are economical for all resources including money, human resources, time and effort. Cyprus is a unique case that can demonstrate the links between (de)securitisation, ontological security and peacebuilding; it is a practical case due to my links and networks; and it is a case that I am personally invested and interested in.

Ethical concerns: My personal attachment to and involvement in various CSOs on the ground and my explicit political position vis-à-vis the Cyprus Problem could be considered as researcher bias. Nevertheless, considering subjectivity cannot be eliminated and the research has explicit normative commitments, these concerns can also be viewed as strengths, as they present effective access and understanding for the case study. The established rapport with myriad stakeholders and personal experiences could strengthen the interpretive aspect of the research when drawing conclusions.

22 _{For more on criticisms see Gomm, R., M. Hammersley and Foster, P. Eds. (2000). Case Study Method: Key Issues, Key}

Texts; Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research; Bennett, A. and Elman, C. (2007). Case study methods in the international relations subfield; Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research : design and methods.

Analytical and methodological concerns: The research may not be comparable to other protracted conflict environments and it is difficult to draw generalisations beyond the case study. However, the research will pave the way for comparative studies, could be replicated in other conflict environments and enrich emerging the academic literature on the (de)securitisation, reconciliation and ontological security nexus.

The focus on Turkish immigrants

Turkish immigrants are part of the comprehensive settlement negotiations on Track 1 level but the existing research rarely goes beyond a debate about their numbers. As previously discussed, the literature that takes the debate about people from Turkey beyond a discussion about mere numbers are mainly limited to the works24 of Mete Hatay, Neophytos Loizides, Yeal Navaro-Yashin, Hatice Kurtuluş and Semra Purkis and Hüseyin Çakal. However, despite the securitisation of Turkish immigrants as an existential threat and a major obstacle for reaching a solution and the lack of agreement about their future on the island on the negotiation table, the conflict resolution and peacebuilding literatures have failed to include Turkish immigrants in their analysis, limiting the understanding of the conflict between Turkish-Cypriots and Greek-Cypriots.

By expanding the focus to include this group, the thesis seeks to add value to the existing literature through arguing that Turkish immigrants occupy a fundamentally important, yet surprisingly unrecognised role, in the Cypriot identity narratives as well as in the discourses and dynamics underpinning the conflict. Furthermore, the Turkish settler/immigrant community holds a different status compared to other migrants in Cyprus for five main reasons: 1) their growing numbers are a big concern for Cypriots and this number is being negotiated by the parties at Track 1 level; b) they are more politically charged than other migrants due to their numbers and ties to Turkey; c) Turkey’s role in Cyprus and the ‘TRNCs’ dependence on Turkey is undeniable as a guarantor, occupier, negotiator, financer and so forth; d) They are a diverse group of people that include settlers, economic migrants, students, soldiers, investors and so forth who are mostly pigeonholed into a lump sum number; e) They have ethnic, linguistic and religious ties with Turkish Cypriots.

Ethical concerns: Due to different cultural values and traditions within the Turkish immigrant community, the female participants were asked whether they felt comfortable in participating in a mixed group or whether they preferred to participate in an only female group during the ‘recruitment’ process. However, no female participant expressed such a concern for the two focus groups that took place in Nicosia and Famagusta. In fact, female participation in these two focus groups was meaningful both qualitatively and quantitatively25_{. In the third focus}

group that took place in Kyrenia, where the migrant population is particularly made up of unskilled construction workers, all 13 participants were male. The method of recruitment that was used for all focus groups was the snow-ball technique but the researcher’s unfamiliarity with the city compared to the other two cities meant a heavier reliance on this technique. However, all male participation in the third focus group is also representative of the social and economic background of the migrant population in Kyrenia, as participants in the capital and in Famagusta are more socially and economically integrated and established. As such, these participants were more likely to come from educated backgrounds that inter-married Cypriots or acquired ‘TRNC’ citizenship. In Kyrenia, the snow-ball technique was particularly effective as the migrants in this city expressed disempowerment and being disenfranchised; they expressed their excitement at the opportunity to share their opinions and problems to someone who was interested outside of an election campaign.

Analytical and methodological concerns: Themigrant groups from Turkey are highly diverse26 and it is important not to pigeonhole people into identity categories. Although Turkishness may not be the primary identity for some people in this group, some categorical analysis is necessary to draw conclusions from the research. Methodologically, the research adopted a strategically controlled bias when recruiting to ensure that the diversity of this group is respected. Age groups, birthplace, gender, location and time of stay in Cyprus were among these considerations. That being said, the majority of both Turkish-Cypriots and Greek- Cypriots, except for some civil society representatives, tend to securitise this diverse group of immigrants into one all-inclusive and undifferentiated threat category under the title of ‘people from Turkey’ (Turkiyeliler).

Quantitative telephone surveys

Quantitative telephone surveys, which were based on stratified random sampling among Cypriot citizens to provide data on the perceptions of the existential threat(s), anxieties, identities and possible solution scenarios, are chosen for their efficiency and cost effectiveness in reaching out to a large number of people. Quantitative work often comes with budgetary and efficacy constrains. Telephone surveys are comparatively cheaper and faster to conduct compared face-to-face questionnaires and they also offer discreet anonymity for the respondent and are proven to provide more honest replies when the interviewer and interviewee are fundamentally unknown to one another (Mathers, Fox et al. 1998). Telephone interviews are particularly useful when the respondents to be interviewed are geographically distributed, but the complexity of the interview is limited without the use of visual aids and prompts (Parfitt 2005). The quantitative surveys were conducted by two research companies in Cyprus; one in the RoC that conducted the survey in Greek for RoC citizens and one in north Cyprus that conducted the survey in Turkish for ‘TRNC’ citizens. The sample was based on citizenship and did not filter out those who had non-Cypriot parents, who were dual citizens or who acquired citizenship due marriage or length of stay in Cyprus. The two research companies delivered the data in SPSS format.

Ethical concerns: Due to the political content of the questionnaire questions, the interviewers were particularly instructed to clearly state the nature and objectives of the project before starting the questionnaire and receive respondents’ consent.

Analytical and methodological concerns: In quantitative methods, sampling and analytical concerns are particularly tricky as the aim is to be able to draw credible, representative and legitimate conclusions. The research used stratified random sampling to represent the population in Cyprus. Generally, a sample for student projects for descriptive or exploratory surveys is ranged between 60-120 (Davies and Hughes 2014); however, considering the objectives of the thesis and its normative commitments, the legitimacy and the robustness of the data is crucial. Thus, the telephone survey sample, which was drawn separately based on registered telephone lines, was 500 for each community. Considering the decrease in the use of landline phones and wide penetration of mobile phones, telephone survey methodologists

that mainly rely on landlines face a new challenge to overcome coverage bias27 _{(Groves 1989).}

However, based on the study carried out on coverage bias in European telephone surveys,

which included both the RoC and north Cyprus, the concern about coverage bias is not a decisive one for this research (see Mohorko, de Leeuw et al. 2013).

The main analytical concern with regards to employing this methodology in the context of Cyprus is the problem of different interviewers asking the same questions in two different languages, which may create nuances in the meaning of certain words such as ‘anxiety’ and ‘fear’. Considering the difficulty with measuring identity, the telephone survey questions were strategic and carefully crafted in consultation with the research companies and thesis supervisors. Some of these questions were also adopted from previous opinion polls that tested their viability and allowed for a temporal comparison. The identity questions included scale questions and self-referential questions in order to avoid pigeonholing people into identity labels and to try to establish the closest associations. In this sense, the research is mainly interested in cultural, ethnic and civic identity perceptions rather than other identity layers that may come with religion, family, gender, age, occupation, sexual orientation and so forth.

Another analytical concern is asking interviewees to reflect on changes over time (i.e. with regards to their identity perceptions). This raises issues of ‘recall bias’, meaning that the past can be glorified, damned, downplayed, or ‘not recalled’ (Bruter and Lodge 2013). However, the key interest for the research is to explore the shared perceptions of change and not the ‘hard reality’ of change; thus, despite being a concern, recall bias will not be decisive for the conclusions.

Table No 4: QTS

Focus groups

Focus groups provide an in-depth analysis about Turkish immigrants’ perceived role in and understanding of the Cyprus Problem and the peacebuilding process, and insights about their experiences of the securitisation dynamics. Focus groups are a very efficient way of garnering empirical data as they allow the researcher to collect data from the group interaction as well as the responses of the individual participants. Compared to individual interviews, a free flowing discussion with a small group of people can significantly increase the sample for a qualitative study. It is also worth noting that participants in focus groups can build on each other’s responses and insights, which improves the richness of discussion and is more likely to be revealing. The three regional focus groups that were conducted as part of the fieldwork are summarised in the table below:

Table No 5: FG

Ethical concerns: Due to the political content of the questionnaire questions, the nature and objectives of the project was clearly stated to the participants during recruitment and before the focus group to ensure that the participants knew the data would be used anonymously and that they can withdraw from the research at any time. Focus group conductors remained outside of the discussion without expressing their own opinions on the subject matter.

discussion and I acted as the note taker and observer. The conversation was free flowing but guided with a list of open-ended questions. The focus groups were audio recorded as people tend to feel more conscious about their expressions when there is a video camera present.

Analytical and methodological concerns: Generally, the ideal sample for focus groups is approximately 4-6 but can move up to 20 depending on the complexity and the depth of the questions (Davies and Hughes 2014). The focus group participation was between 6-13 people in each location. Sample was based on noncitizen people of Turkish origin who are residents in north Cyprus and ‘TRNC’ citizens of Turkish origin who were born to non-Cypriot parents. The sample took age, gender and occupation into consideration to ensure diversity but young people aged 18-30 and people aged over 60 were not represented. This was a result of the snow-balling technique in recruitment as well as due to transportation issues (i.e. young people and people over 60 lacked access to cars). Considering the data will not be used for generalisations but rather to enrich and triangulate other fieldwork data, the limitations with the representation of all age groups is not a major concern.

The focus group data is used reflectively for interpretive analysis to allow the reader to get a sense of the nature and meaning of the responses offered, as well as illustratively to support arguments rather than to make arguments. The aim is not to count the number of people who agreed and quantify it or to represent a diverse migrant community as a whole, but rather to bring to surface the reflective thoughts and experiences of small but strategically selected sample, and to shed light on an identified, practical, policy-related or conceptual question.

Semi-structured online surveys

Online surveys have become really popular tools for systematic gathering of data from a target audience as they are cheap, efficient and practical. Compared to email questionnaires, online survey software or websites increase the efficiency of data gathering by streamlining the responses, providing some control over which questions need to be answered (i.e. administering skip logic techniques), and providing the initial data analysis very rapidly28_.

Ethical concerns: There are a few ethical concerns about online surveys, such as sending unsolicited emails can be intrusive or be considered spamming. Some emails being rejected as spam or falling into junk folders or not being delivered can be a worry for the researcher too. There are also the sampling considerations about online surveys as they exclude those who do not have access to the Internet, IT resources or those who are not IT literate. All these concerns about spamming and sampling do not apply to this particular research project as the online surveys were used to reach out to a specific target group. Cyprus CSO Directory was used to identify the target group, who were emailed directly on an individual level with a link to the online survey to avoid spamming or intrusion.

Analytical and methodological concerns: At a first glance, it can be argued online surveys are not suitable for surveys with open-ended questions because there is no trained interviewer to explore the answers of the respondents, and no human contact or a chance to build rapport. However, recent studies show that high quality responses to open-ended questions are

obtainable in web surveys (Smyth, Dillman et al. 2009). Even though there are no spur of the

moment anecdotes or the instant opportunity follow up on an interesting topic, semi- structured online surveys tend to produce less non-response questions than other modes, as they have the ability to prompt a respondent when a question is left blank; where, in face-to- face or telephone interviews, interviewers are more likely to accept ‘no opinion’ answers without any probing in order to maintain the rapport or not to intimidate the respondent (Fricker, Galesic et al. 2005). For semi-structured and open-ended questionnaires, including an introduction to a question that states the importance of the question for the study can result in higher quality and longer responses (Christian and Dillman 2004, Smyth, Dillman et al. 2009). There are similar studies that show that online respondents on average use more words (Schaefer and Dillman 1998).

Furthermore, online surveys are well suited for CSO representatives not least because they have internet access and are computer literate, but also because they are more likely to be

familiar with the survey questions and the topic at hand, which negates the need for guidance

and explanation during the survey. To further eliminate the concerns regarding the lack of guidance and human contact, a pilot study was conducted with 10 individuals including PhD students and professionals to ensure that the questions were clearly phrased. Approximately

200 CSO’s29 _{were identified and the survey link was sent to an identified CSO representative}30

rather than directly to the organisational email address or web forum to minimise interns, assistants or people who cannot be considered ‘representatives’ from filling in the questionnaire.

Table No 6: CSOS

29_{Including international organisations, local authorities, trade unions, chambers, associations, think-tanks and etc.} 30 _{A CSO representative refers to a founding/board member, project/programme coordinator/manager, general}

4.4 Conclusion

Today, social sciences in particular and research world in general are becoming increasingly inter-disciplinary. In fact, inter-disciplinary work is not only growing but being actively encouraged and promoted through various grants and programmes. This is not only a ‘new trend’ in academia, but it also underlines the acknowledgement and realisation that ‘purist’ approaches that treat subjects, methods and tools mutually exclusive are not necessarily on solid ground in assuming the existence of inherent incompatibility between different research methods. Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, who promote epistemological and methodological pluralism, contend that mixed-methods facilitate communication and collaboration across approaches and disciplines and provide superior research (Johnson and Onwuegbuzie 2004). If we do not assume that the logic of justification has inherent impositions on data collection, then epistemological and paradigmatic ecumenicalism becomes more achievable by allowing us to move past the paradigm wars, and by offering a practical alternative to combine the strengths of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies (Howe 1988, Bryman and