Bonos

A study of the Scandinavian settlement of Lewis and Scotland in general, particularly one focusing on anthropo-toponyms, should not neglect one of the richest sources for medieval Scandinavian settlement available: Landnámabók, the Book of Settlements (LNB),

describing the settlement of Iceland. Although it primarily concentrates on the settlement of Iceland, there are numerous references to the British and Irish Isles, revealing the close links between these areas during the Viking Age. There are several instances of settlers travelling from Britain or Ireland to Iceland, the account of Auðr perhaps being the most notable one (LNB, 136-47). Additionally, there are a number of personal names of Celtic

193 origin found throughout such as Kalman, Dufþak, and Melpatrix (LNB, 81, 347, 390). In particular, the close association between Iceland and the Hebrides should not be

underestimated, and it is partly for this reason that this comparative study is undertaken.

LNB as a source certainly has its problems. However, this overview is not intended as a critical analysis of this work, nor as an evaluation of the extent to which some of the material is invention. Issues of transmission, chronology and composition have been extensively discussed elsewhere already by scholars such as Pálsson & Edwards (2012 [1972], 1-13). For the purpose of this study, I will adopt the sentiments of Jesch (2015, 193-4) in her statement that:

Certainly the work is deceptive in the level of detail it seems to provide, and it cannot necessarily be used as a source for the history of any one individual, family or farm. But precisely because it has so much information, it is possible to study some of the patterns in Landnámabók without necessarily believing every word it says.

Based on this, the stance taken here is that the stories and motivations provided in LNB can give an insight into how the medieval Norse settlers viewed the process of naming the landscape around them. In a traditional society such as that of the Norse in the medieval period, we might suspect that the descriptions of settlement, and their motivations, as found in LNB were at the very least plausible to a contemporary audience.

The aim here is to provide an overview of the anthropo-toponyms found in LNB,

particularly material relating to the context of coining these names. The findings will then be discussed in relation to other material presented in this thesis in Chapter 5. As stated above, the purpose is to highlight patterns that emerge from the stories, patterns which might provide an insight into the whole process of coining toponyms by the Norse settlers, rather than to view individual instances as absolute truths. In addition to this, since this material is primarily investigated in order to shed light on the Lewis data, it is not intended as a comprehensive analysis of Icelandic anthropo-toponyms. However, it is worth noting that there is certainly scope for future comparative studies focusing more directly on

naming patterns in Icelandic toponyms. Based on this, the aims of this section are two-fold:

firstly, questions will be asked relating to the patterns of naming in LNB. For example, what different types of motivations are given for the coining of the toponyms? Which ones are the most common? Secondly, how do these compare with other material presented in this thesis? This includes comparing LNB to the Norse Lewis material to attempt to fill some of the gaps there. However, for the purpose of the wider study of

anthropo-194 toponyms, it can be used to further analyse the context of coining anthropo-toponyms and the patterns of naming as a whole. By listing the personal names found in the anthropo-toponyms of LNB it is possible to provide an insight into some of the naming patterns among the Norse in the Scandinavian diaspora. A total of some 256 anthropo-toponyms where some indication of motivation for coining is given has been compiled from LNB. ¹⁴⁴ Here, it is worth noting that LNB records ‘the first settler for some 430 farms’ (Jesch 2015, 193), and a significant number of these clearly consists of anthropo-toponyms. The nature of LNB itself and as a literary source has made it necessary to approach it in a different manner from that used when investigating the other material presented in this work. This is why the emphasis has been placed on entries providing a direct description of the context for naming a place.

4.4.2 The name-stock 4.4.2.1 Personal names

Table 4.5 lists the personal names found in the anthropo-toponyms of LNB. As far as possible, epithets such as nicknames have been included. In these instances, they have been listed as a separate name. This means that in the case of a personal name such as Eyvindr, m., it is listed as three separate entries with Eyvindr on its own being found twice, and twice with epithets (Eyvindr auðkula and Eyvindr hani). Although genealogies can be traced for some individuals, these have only been included when they are given in direct association with the named individual, as in Flóki son of Vilgerð Hǫrða-Káradóttur. The most striking feature which emerges from the name-stock is that there is considerable variety to be found with 188 different expressions denoting an individual. Only the personal name Grímr, m. occurs more than three times, and many of the personal names are only found once. This pattern is further emphasised by including the epithets as part of the name. For example, the pn Bjǫrn, m. is found six times in the name-stock. However, by the use of epithets, at least four different individuals can be identified: Sléttu-Bjǫrn, Bjǫrn enn austrœni, Bjǫrn gullberi and Bjǫrn sviðinhorni. The main conclusion to draw from this pattern is that these epithets function as ways to identify individuals and make them

recognisable, both in the written material, and presumably also in the communities in which they were used. This provides a valuable insight into the naming patterns among the Norse and we would expect to see similar patterns in other areas, such as Lewis.

Additionally, these epithets are significant because they are sometimes incorporated into

144 All the LNB entries discussed here are based on the edition by Benediktsson (1986).

195 the toponyms. We see this in toponyms like Gullberastaðir (from Bjǫrn gullberi) and Hringstaðir (from Haraldr ringr) (LNB, 72, 214). It is interesting to note that this pattern of denoting individuals is quite similar to what we see in later Gaelic Lewis toponyms where a combination of patronyms and nicknames is used to denote individuals. Particularly the most common personal names are generally given epithets.

Table 4.5 personal names in the anthropo-toponyms of LNB¹⁴⁵

Ævarr, m. (1), Álfgeirr, m. (1), Án, m. (1), Ármóðr enn rauði, m.

(Þorbjarnarson, fóstbróðir Geirleifs) (1), Arneiðr, f. (dóttur

Ásbjarnar) (1), Arnlaugr, m. (1), Ásbjǫrn, m. (1), Áskell hnokkan, m. (1), Ásmundr, m. (1), Ásólfr, m. (1), Atli, m. (1), Auðr ennar djúpauðgu, f. (1), Auðun skǫkull, m. (1)

Bálki, m. (Blængsson, Sótasonar af Sótanesi) (1), Bárðr, m. (1), Bárðr, m. (son Heyjangrs-Bjarnar) (1), Baugr, m. (1), Bekan, m.

(1), Bersi goðlauss, m. (1), Bjǫrn enn austrœni, m. (1), Bjǫrn gullberi, m. (1), Bjǫrn sviðinhorni, m. (1), Bjǫrn, m. (1), Bǫðmóðr, m. (2), Bót, f. (1), Brúni enn hvíti, m. (1)

Drumb-Oddr, m. (1), Dufþak, m. (2), Dýri, m. (1)

Einarr, m. (2), Eiríkr rauði, m. (2), Eiríkr, m. (3), Eyvindr auðkúla, m. (1), Eyvindr hani, m. (1), Eyvindr, m. (2)

Faxi, m. (1), Finni, m. (1), Flóki, m. (1), Flóki son Vilgerðar Hǫrða-Káradóttur, m. (3), Friðleifr, m. (2)

Galmr, m. (1), Garðarr, m. (1), Geirhildr, f. (1), Geiri, m. (3), Geirmundr, m. (1), Geirólfr, m. (1), Geirr enn auðgi, m. (1), Geirsteinn kjálki, m. (1), Geirþjólfr, m. (Valþjósson) (1), Gísl skeiðarnef, m. (1), Grímólfr, m. (1), Grímr, m. (4), Gríss, m. (1),

145 As stated above, this includes anthropo-toponyms where a motivation for coining is given.

196 Guðlaugr, m. (2), Gull-Þórir, m. (1), Gunarr, m. (1), Gunnbjǫrn,

m. (1), Gunnólfr enn gamli, m. (1), Gunnólfr kroppa, m. (2)

Hafgrímr, m. (1), Haki, m. (1), Hákon, m. (1), Hallbjǫrn, m. (1), Hallgeirr, m. (1), Hallkell, m. (1), Hallormr, m. (1), Hallstein, m.

(son Þórólfs Mostrarskeggs) (1), Hallvarðr súgandi, m. (1),

Haraldr ringr, m. (1), Haukr, m. (1), Hávarðr hegri, m. (1), Helgi, m. (2), Hella-Bjǫrn, m. (son Herfinns ok Hǫllu) (2), Herjólfr, m.

(3), Hildir, m. (2), Hjalti, m. (son Þórðar skálps) (1), Hjǫrleifr, m.

(1), Hólmgǫngu-Máni, m. (2), Holti, m. (1), Hǫrðr, m. (2),

Hǫskuldr, m. (1), Hrafn, m. (1), Hrafnkell, m. (1), Hrani, m. (1), Hreiðarr, m. (1), Hrolleifr enn mikli, m. (2), Hrómundr, m. (1), Hrútr, m. (1), Hundi, m. (1), Hvati, m. (1)

Ingimundr, m. (1), Ingjaldr, m. (Brúnason) (1), Ingólfr, m. (3), Ísleifr, m. (1), Ísrøðr, m. (1)

Jólgeirr, m. (1), Jǫrundr háls, m. (1)

Kalman, m. (2) , Karl, m. (2), Ketil, m. (2), Ketill blundr, m. (1), Ketill gufa, m. (6), Ketill þistill, m. (1), Kjallakr ungi, m. (1), Kjallakr, m. (son Bjarnar ens sterka, bróður Gjaflaugar) (1), Kjaran, m. (1), Kolbein, m. (2), Kolli, m. (2), Kolli, m.

(Hróaldsson) (1), Kollsveinn enn rami, m. (1), Kolr, m. (1), Kóri, m. (1), Kýlan, m. (Kárason) (1)

Leiðólfr kappi, m. (2), Ljótólfr, m. (1), Loðmundr, m. (1)

Máni, m. (2), Már, m. (Naddoddssynir) (1)

Náttfari, m. (1)

Oddbjǫrn, m. (1), Oddgeirr, m. (2), Ófeigr grettir, m. (1), Ófeigr, m. (1), Óláfr bekkr(?), m. (1), Óláfr belgr, m. (4), Óláfr

197 tvennumbrúni, m. (1), Ǫlvir, m. (1), Ǫnundr bíldr, m. (1),

Ǫnundr, m. (Víkingsson, bróðir Þórðar í Alviðru) (1), Ørlygr, m.

(1), Ormr, m. (1), Ǫrn enn gamli, m. (1), Ǫrn, m. (4), Ǫrnólfr, m.

(?) (3)

Patrek, m. (1)

Rauða-Bjǫrn, m. (2), Rauðr, m. (1), Reistr, m. (Reistr son Bjarneyja-Ketils ok Hildar, systur Ketils þistils, faðir Arnsteins goða) (1), Roðrekr, m. (1), Rǫnguðr, m. (1)

Sæmundr, m. (3), Sel-Þórir, m. (1), Sigmundr, m. (1), Signý, f.

(1), Skalla-Grímr, m. (1), Skjalda-Bjǫrn, m. (1), Skjǫdólfr, m. (1), Skjǫdólfr, m. (Vémundarson, bróðir Berðlu-Kára) (1), Skorri, m.

(3), Sléttu-Bjǫrn, m. (2), Snjallstein, m. (1), Sǫkkólfr, m. (1), Sǫlvi, m. (2), Sóti, m. (1), Steingrímr, m. (1), Steinólfr enn lági, m. (2), Steinrøðr, m. (son Melpatrix af Írlandi) (1), Stórólfr, m.

(Hœngsson) (1), Svart, m. (1) Sveinungr, m. (1)

Þór, m. (theonym) (3), Þóra, f. (Langaholts-) (1), Þórarinn korni, m. (1), Þórarinn krókr, m. (2), Þorbjǫrn bitra, m. (1), Þórbjǫrn kólka, m. (1), Þorbrandr ørrek, m. (1), Þórdis, f. (1), Þórðr

knappr, m. (1), Þórðr skeggi, m. (1), Þorgauti, m. (1), Þorgeirr, m.

(1), Þorgrímr bíldr, m. (bróðir Ǫnundar bílds) (1), Þóri þurs, m.

(1), Þórir dúfunef, m. (1), Þórir, m. (1), Þormóð, m. (1), Þóroddr, m. (1), Þórólfr, m. (bróðir Ásgerðar) (1), Þorsteinn lunan, m. (1), Þorsteinn svarfaðr, m. (1), Þórunn, f. (1), Þorvarði, m. (1), Þrandr mjǫksiglandi, m. (Bjarnarson, bróðir Eyvindar austmanns) (1)

Úlfarr kappi, m. (1), Uni, m. (son Garðars) (2)

Vékell enn hamrammi, m. (1), Vestar, m. (1), Vestmaðr, m. (1), Vífil, m. (3)

198 4.4.2.2 Generics

As previously stated, although the toponyms found in LNB cannot be viewed as a historical representation of the Icelandic settlement, they do give an insight into some of the contexts in which certain generics might have been used. Based on this, the generics found in the anthropo-toponyms with various motivations have been listed in Table 4.6. Some of the patterns found in the generic elements may be applicable elsewhere. One feature to note is the frequency of topographical generics used in a land-claiming and settlement context. As previously noted, a strong association between habitative generics and personal names is often made, particularly in the context of associating anthropo-toponyms with ownership.

However, the frequency of topographical generics found in association with land-claiming and settlements at least shows that toponyms containing topographical generics should not be disregarded as potential anthropo-toponyms. Here, we should also highlight the fact that the Icelandic settlers arrived in a largely uninhabited, non-settled landscape which may partly account for the frequency of topographical generic elements.

Table 4.6 Generics in the anthropo-toponyms of LNB¹⁴⁶ á ‘a river’ (top.)

dwelling’ (hab.) AntClas1.d (1) lœkr ‘a brook, a rivulet’

(top.) AntClas1.d (2)

swamp’ (top.) AntClas1.b (1)

ey ‘an island’ (top.)

fjǫrðr ‘a firth’ (top.) AntClas1.b (29);

AntClas1.c (2); sandr ‘sand’ (top.) AntClas1.b (2)

146 See 5.2 for an explanation of ‘AntClas’.

199

AntClas1.b (1) skarð ‘a mountain pass’

(top.) isolated rock in the sea’

(top.)

precipice’ (top.) AntClas4.d (1) grǫf ‘a pit, a grave’

coast, a shore’ (top.) AntClas1.b (1) haugr ‘a how, a

tunga ‘a tongue’ (top.) AntClas1.b (4) hǫfn ‘a holding, a