Campos de Killing

The research used a qualitative methodology which reflects the unquantifiable nature of fisheries conflict issues. The research was descriptively quantitative where data was available, but

primarily qualitative. Primary sources of data and information were local ecological knowledge provided by fishers and fishing community leaders and work experience knowledge provided by fisheries experts in Ghanaian fisheries management institutions through conversations. Local ecological knowledge has been defined by Charnley et al. (2008) as knowledge, practices, and beliefs regarding ecological relationships that are gained through extensive personal observation of and interaction with local ecosystems, and shared among local resource users. Fieldwork in the form of direct observation, and conversations with fishers were conducted in major fishing villages and landing sites across the coast of Ghana throughout 2013 and 2014. Secondary data (fish catch and effort data, official fisheries records and documents) were collected from the

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Ghana Fisheries Commission and analysed. Data and relevant information for the research was also collected by participating in fisheries meetings at different levels. Therefore, the methods used in the collection of data and information were review and analysis of official marine fisheries and oil and gas records and documents, direct observations, conversations with fishers, the collection and analysis of fisheries catch and effort data, and participation in stakeholder meetings as outlined below.

1.7.1 Review and analysis of official marine fisheries and oil and gas documents

One important method employed to gather data and information for this research was the review and analysis of official fisheries and oil and gas documents. Some of the documents collected for review and analysis include Ghana‟s Fisheries Law, Fisheries Regulations, National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy, Ghana‟s Marine Fisheries Management Plan, Ghana National

Aquaculture Development Plan, Tullow Oil Ghana Limited Jubilee Field Public Consultation and Disclosure Plan (PCDP) 2013 as well as project documents and reports. Such documents were collected from government agencies, universities and other research institutions and private organizations. Extensive desk-based online search and review of international literature on fisheries conflicts, natural resource use conflicts, governance and management within fisheries as well as literature on fisheries and oil and gas interactions was conducted. These included books, thesis dissertations, presentations, meeting proceedings and other reports. Materials including published articles from international journals were also examined.

1.7.2 Direct observations and conversations with fisheries and oil and gas stakeholders

Direct observations of fishing activities (types of fishing vessels, fishing gears and fish catching techniques) and conversations with fishers in fishing communities and landing sites were conducted to have an impression of the types of interactions among fishers along the fish value chain and how conflicts arise from those interactions. This was also to collect first-hand

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information from fishers on their perceptions about the recent past, current state and the future of Ghana‟s marine fisheries. Direct observations and conversations were held in both high and low fishing seasons to get an impression of fishing activities all year round. Different conversations were held with community leaders, fishermen, fishmongers, fish processors and boat owners. Conversations were also held with representatives of fisheries arbitration committees, fisheries experts of the Fisheries Commission in fishing communities and at the national level as well as experts in fisheries research institutions. To get an impression of the existing and emerging conflicts between fisheries and the oil and gas sector, conversations were held with stakeholders in coastal communities in the Western Region of Ghana, where the impacts of oil and gas production activities on fisheries are more visible. During conversation processes, detailed notes were taken and later processed and analyzed.

1.7.3 Collection and analysis of national fisheries catch and effort data

In order to have a clear picture of trends in marine fish catches and changes in fishing effort, raw data on annual fish production estimates were collected from the Fisheries Commission,

compiled and analyzed. These have been presented in the form of graphs in chapter three. There are challenges with national marine fisheries data systems as have been identified by (Mills et

al., 2010; Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2011; Nunoo and Asiedu, 2013; FAO, 2014; Nunoo et al., 2014). Nunoo et al. (2014) for instance reported that national marine fisheries data is

incomplete and substantially under-reported. This presents some doubts about the quality of the data collected by the Marine Fisheries Research Division but overall, the data is a reflection of the status of fisheries in Ghana. Official data reported to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) shows a decline in catch due to over-exploitation of stocks. Therefore, despite the challenges, the quality of the data is high, representing a good snapshot of the biological and economic conditions associated with the fisheries. FAO (2014) also states that the fisheries data

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is mainly limited to total catch information and effort which is not always available. Biological information including length composition is almost nonexistent. The work involved in

developing annual and time series data partially explains why there are few other studies reporting Ghanas‟s fisheries data.

The Marine Fisheries Research Division occasionally conducts surveys (canoe frame surveys) on small-scale marine fisheries in Ghana to determine existing canoe numbers, types of fishing gears, number of existing canoe fishermen and socio-economic issues in the fisheries. The latest of such surveys was conducted in 2013. In order to have the most current and detailed

information on the small-scale marine fisheries sector, the 2013 canoe frame survey report was also collected from the Fisheries Commission and analyzed to show how parameters such as number of fishing boats, crew members and fish catch have changed over time. Findings from the canoe survey report were also compared with the information gathered from fishers through conversations.

1.7.4 Fisheries stakeholder consultation meetings and workshops

During the data and information gathering process, a lot of useful information was collected and analyzed by participating in fisheries stakeholder meetings at community, regional and national levels. Information was also gathered by participating in national fisheries dialogue workshops involving wide range of fisheries and oil and gas stakeholders including government and non- governmental officials, international donor organizations, civil society organizations (CSOs), research institutions, and national fisheries associations. Useful information on fisheries and oil and gas conflicts was also obtained by participating in meetings of the national-level platform for fisheries and oil and gas interactions. Fisheries and oil and gas seminars, workshops and

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conferences were also some of the avenues used for more information gathering. These different methodologies will be applied to different issues in this thesis.