CAPÍTULO VI: CONTROL DE EMOCIONES Y LIDERAZGO
6.1. CARACTERÍSTICAS DEL LÍDER
NGOs have become recognised players in international development,
especially over the last decade, as shown by the amounts of official development aid they have received and their phenomenal growth and expansion. However,
evidence is growing that generally NGOs do not perform as had been usually assumed (Edwards and Hulme 1995; Suharko 2007; Banks et al 2015). In discussing NGO weaknesses, I will explore the following weaknesses, focusing on those that will be relevant to the analysis of the case study in Chapter Eight of Thesis. These are: a) Lack of continuity of some NGOs initiated project activities; b) Donor dependency as a weakness; c) NGO accountability as a weakness.
a) Lack of continuity of some of the NGO initiated project activities
In his study of NGOs in Papua New Guinea, Banks et al (2015:710, citing Balboa 2014) says that, while NGO were very successful in mobilizing huge financial resources and influencing policy, they were weak at building sustainable, suitable, and locally relevant changes amongst the poor communities. This was because the NGO’s impact and influence were limited by their weak roots in the community institutions that people collectively utilize to negotiate and advance their interests with key decision makers (Banks et al 2015). Bagci (2003) criticises the NGOs in terms of their type of project activities. This, he says, NGOs often tend to fail
because local rural people find it difficult to continue running those project activities.
The other problem that affects continuity, according to Jocelyn Dejong (1991), is the presence of foreign members of staff who generally had shorter employment
contracts with NGOs.
However, even when NGOs have more funds than the government to implement projects, ultimately the NGOs cannot guarantee rights and privileges of people, which are enshrined in the constitution but are the privy for the
government. Therefore, ideally, given the short duration nature of NGOs projects, their role should be to strengthen the voice to poor people to demand for services from the government as well as hold the government accountable. This is an area where NGOs and government need to collaborate and coordinate programmes accordingly to ensure complementarities of development interventions as will be explained in detail in Chapter Eight of this Thesis.
b) Donor dependency as weakness.
For most NGOs, funding is a most urgent and persistent constraint (Allison and Macinko 1993). Essentially, Salamon et al (2000) states that the inability of NGOs to generate appropriate resources at levels that are both sufficient and reliable to cope with the complex range of human problems that they have to deal with, is one of the inherent problems facing NGOs. They (2000) assert that the biggest challenge, is the fact that the resources are not frequently available in areas
or sectors where the problems are most severe. The old adage ‘he who pays the piper calls the tune’ in simple terms means ‘whoever supplies the money makes decisions over it.’
Lack of own funds is what makes NGOs vulnerable. For example, Banks et al (2015:710), asserts that without their own alternative funds, NGOs significantly face challenges tailoring programmes to the needs of their local communities, as they have to align their strategies with the priorities and interests of donors. Banks et al (2015:710), shares her experience on NGOs in Malawi, where, donor priorities on HIV/AIDs, swayed many of them away from focusing on other pressing needs. Apart from NGOs being swayed from local needs and priorities, dependency on donor funding forces NGOs to concentrate on functional accountability i.e. inputs, outputs and targets that are easily measurable at the expense of broader objectives of empowerment of the rural poor. In doing so, NGOs tends to overlook tackling the processes and facilitating of structural changes in institutions that perpetuate
poverty and inequality. Subsequently, NGOs usually become implementers of donor policy, rather than delivering their services independently (Banks et al 2015;
Edwards 1998). In cases where donor‐financing cycles are shorter, the NGOs finds it difficult to plan for longer‐ term programmes, an aspect that affects their ability to address empowerment interventions that require more than an annual budget (Allison and Macinko 1993). This challenge will be explained in detail in Chapter Eight of this Thesis.
c) NGO accountability17 as a weakness.
In recent years there have been calls for NGOs’ accountability, implying that there are currently inadequate rigorous kinds of accountability mechanisms similar to those that the government and the business sector are subjected to (see for example: Edwards and Hulme 1995; Fowler 1995; Salamon et al 2000; Edwards
17 Edwards and Hulme (1995:9) interprets NGO accountability as the mechanisms through which individuals and organizations report to a recognized authority or authorities and are held responsible for their actions.
2000; Gray et al 2005; Anheier 2014). Anheier (2014) and Salamon et al (2000) suggest that, while business organizations are measured by business profits, and government agencies are held accountable through elected representatives and voters, by contrast for NGOs, it is trustworthiness that is the principle mechanism of accountability. This is so because it is widely assumed that NGOs do not generate profits for their managers (See also Gray et al 2005), because of their nature and social functions. In addition, NGOs tend to serve those people within a population who are incapable of paying the costs for the services they receive, hence, their revenues cannot applied as an indicator of performance (Fowler 1995). Hence, these NGO managers can be trusted to perform to the best interest of the organization and those whom it services (Salamon et al 2000).
Edwards and Hulme (1995:9, citing Avina 1993) differentiates between, on one hand ‘functional accountability,’ that involves accounting for resources and their utilization, and immediate impacts; and on the other hand is ‘strategic
accountability,’ that involves accounting for NGO actions and their impact on other organizations and their wider environment. It is the functional and strategic
accountability responsibilities, combined with other NGOs accountabilities upwards to their trustees, and donors, including the host government and downwards to their partners, beneficiaries, members of staff and supporters is what make up what is called ‘multiple accountabilities’ of NGOs to multiple stakeholders18 (Edwards and Hulme 1995). Although this is the case, Norman Uphoff (1995:19) argues that, unlike Grassroots Organizations (GROs) that are directly accountable to their members, NGOs cannot be accountable to the beneficiaries. It is not beneficiaries that establish such organizations, hence, NGOs cannot be held accountable by persons that didn’t create them in the same way that members of an organization can.
It is such multiple accountability responsibilities of NGOs that present profound problems because multiple demands are placed upon them. In addition,
18 A stakeholder represents any party that has a stake or interest in the outcomes of the NGO that includes beneficiaries, donors, other NGOs, NGO members of staff and regulators (Tandon 1995:47).
Uphoff (1995) claims that the relationship between NGOs and their beneficiaries is a
‘take it or leave it’ relationship which is different from membership organizations such as the cooperative that are set up to serve their members. In the same vein, Gray et al (2005) says that accountability is difficult in the sense that those who control and fund the NGOs are usually distinct from those who benefit from the services they provide. This challenge is further exacerbated by the fact that there is no direct mechanism through which beneficiaries can enforce accountability upon either the NGO managers or the donors (Gray et al 2005).
Legally, NGOs are accountable to their trustees and boards, but these usually are usually less rigorous, and are generally weak because they have fewer incentives to monitor NGO performance than is usually the case in the business sector
(Salamon et al 2000). As for the donors, and other resource providers, these according to Tandon (1995:41) although they have a stake in the outcomes of the NGO, they tend to be many donors giving money to one NGO, with each having different reporting demands further complicating the web of stakeholders to which, NGOs account to. Another problem is that NGOs operate in complex environments and are faced with a myriad of forces beyond their control that influences the outcome of their work; hence make it difficult to hold NGO accountable for the impact of forces beyond its control (Edwards and Hulme 1995).
However, despite these challenges in the final analysis NGOs have to be accountable, i.e. they have to balance their books to meet the regulation
requirements laid down in the countries in which they operate. In fact, most NGOs especially those located in the North are subjected to very stringent public scrutiny, especially by the media, if they are found not to live within their means or budget.
What is important is that NGOs need to be more transparent to allow their various stakeholders to hold them into account, whilst at the same time adopt informal mechanisms, which can allow even their poor beneficiaries to engage them in ways that are meaningful to them and their needs.
3.5. THE HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE INTERNATIONAL NGOS
NGOs are understood to have been in existence for centuries. Their
existence were motivated by philanthropic concepts that David Levis (2001:29, citing Ilchman et al 1998) has defined as “the ethical notions of giving and serving to those beyond one’s immediate family, that has existed in different forms in most cultures throughout history, often driven by religious traditions.” Werker and Ahmed (2008) have highlighted that, records show that NGOs have existed since 1807. In their early years, most NGOs were mainly campaigning for either medical supplies or for the welfare of animals (Pinckney 2009). However, the work of NGOs become more noticeable in 1839, when several organizations worked together to establish the Anti‐Slavery Society (ASS), that actively campaigned for the abolition of slave trade in Britain, while other organizations have been reported to have campaigned for
women’s suffrage. Several more NGOs were formed after the wars that had ravaged Europe. For example, the International Committee for the Red Cross (ICRC) was founded in 1863 after the crimean war. Still a lot more NGOs devoted to
humanitarian and development goals emerged after the second world war, starting relatively very small and expanding into complex organizations over years.
These included NGOs such as the Save the Children Fund (SCF) and the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief (now called OXFAM) that were established in 1919 and 1942 respectively (Lewis 2001; Michael 2004; Werker and Ahmed 2008).
Save the Children Fund was created by Eglantyne Jebb to provide relief to children in Europe who were devastated by the first world war while OXFAM was created to provide famine relief to victims of the Greek civil war (Lewis 2001). Also, in the United States of America, an international NGO called Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE) was established in 1945 to provide food and other relief services to people in Europe after the second world war (Michael 2004; Lewis 2001). However, since the end of the second world war, the numbers of NGOs have continued to increase and to play an important role in development (Werker and Ahmed 2008). For instance, Deborah Eade (2000) states that most NGOs (for