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level achieved, markers for brain injury, indicators of intellectual disability, and reading capacity. The possibility of brain injury within the sample was explored through the assessment of

experience of events that are likely to result in brain injury. Assessment indicated more than half of the sample presents with having experienced events that are likely to result in brain injury. This rate of possible brain injury is approximately 25 times the rate of confirmed brain injury in the Australian general population. The rate is consistent with previous Australian research that concludes brain injury is over represented in Australian prison populations (Butler & Milner, 2001; Jackson et al., 2011). This rate is more than 10% higher than a similarly calculated estimate of brain injury in a NSW offender sample (Butler & Milner, 2001). Furthermore, the observed rate is more than 20% higher than a recent Victorian estimate (Jackson et al., 2011). Previous research has demonstrated males displaying a vastly greater rate of brain injury than female offenders. Males and females in the current sample did not differ significantly in their experience

118 of events that are likely to result in brain injury. However, the direction of the distribution

(males>females) is consistent with previous research (Butler & Milner, 2001; Jackson et al., 2011). Taken together, these findings indicate that Victorian offenders present with a profile of brain injury inconsistent with offenders in other Western cultures.

The presence of intellectual disability within the sample was assessed through the study of several historical markers related to community inclusion. These markers indicated that

approximately 5% of the sample may have an intellectual disability. This rate of intellectual disability is markedly higher than the rate of intellectual disability observed in the Australian general population (ABS, 2009). Despite being greater than the national average, this rate is lower than the 10% observed in a NSW youth sample (Allerton et al., 2003). The rate is markedly higher than the 1.3% of intellectual disability estimated in a more recent poll of offenders exiting prison in Victoria (Holland et al., 2007). However, given the sampling differences in comparison studies (e.g., youth samples and exit samples) as compared with the current study (offenders with intellectual disability not targeted for inclusion), this low rate is understandable. No gender difference in the prevalence of intellectual disability was noted in the current sample. These preliminary estimates indicate that intellectual disability is over represented in mainstream incarcerated offenders in Victoria. Additionally, these results indicate there is no gender differentiation in the prevalence of intellectual disability in mainstream prison populations.

Participants’ academic attainment was assessed in two ways in the current sample.

Offenders were asked to reflect both on their highest level of schooling, and their reading ability. Over 90% of the current sample indicated that they read proficiently. Females more than males were more likely to have problems with reading, however these differences were not significant. This self-reported level of reading proficiency is almost double the rate of reading proficiency in the general population of Australia (ABS, 2006). The absence of gender difference in proficiency is consistent with the national finding (ABS, 2006). These self-reports of reading ability are not consistent with previous Australian (e.g., Allerton et al., 2003) or Canadian findings (Blanchette, 2002). The source of this difference is likely related to the manner in which reading proficiency is

119 assessed between tests (e.g., self-report in the current sample, compared to the objective

measures utilised by Allerton and colleagues (2003). This difference indicates a weakness in employing self-report measures of reading proficiency in the current sample.

With regard to schooling, approximately one quarter of the sample indicated that they had completed schooling to Year 12 or higher. Approximately one third of the sample had ceased schooling before Year 10. This rate of attainment is markedly lower that the rate in the general public (ABS, 2011c). Males were more likely than females to have ceased schooling by Year 10, with females more likely than males to have completed schooling to Year 12 or higher. While these gender differences are inconsistent with the distribution of attainment observed in wider Australian non-offender samples (ABS, 2011c), they are consistent with findings from other offender samples (e.g., Allerton et al., 2003; DoJ, 2010). Additionally, the higher attainment for female offenders is consistent with comparable UK samples and Victorian samples (DoJ, 2010;

Home Office, 2002; Clark & Howden-Windell, 2000). The level of attainment for male offenders

in the current sample (approximately 22% achieving Year 12), is markedly higher than that of other Victorian samples (DoJ, 2010). Conversely, the level of attainment for females in the current sample (approximately one third achieving Year 12) is noticeably poorer than has been recorded in other Victorian samples (DoJ, 2010). While the most common time to cease schooling for this Victorian offender sample was prior to Year 10, a clear gender difference in academic schooling is displayed in this offender group.

Taking together each of the indicators of intellectual functioning assessed in the current study (highest schooling level achieved, markers for brain injury, indicators of intellectual disability, and reading capacity), a number of conclusions can be reached about the Victorian offender sample. This is a group of people who are up to 25 times more likely than other members of the public to have sustained a brain injury. They are almost twice as likely as other Australians to have an intellectual disability. With regard to schooling, this group is at a significant disadvantage in comparison to Australian non-offenders, even more so if they are male. While reading at a proficient level is self-reported to be at a remarkably better rate than that of the

120 Australian general population, this self-reported rate of proficiency in this complex intellectual skill seems inconsistent with the other markers of intellectual functioning employed in this thesis. Given that reading is considered a ‘basic’ skill (first learned in primary school and established by secondary school), offenders may be loath to identify this area of skills deficit. Such an

inconsistency indicates there are likely a great deal more offenders with needs related to literacy than policy makers are currently aware of, which likely leaves gaps in criminogenic needs that are addressed during incarceration