Many traditional criteria used for assessment of quality of quantitative research are not applicable to most qualitative research including phenomenology (Finlay, 2006; Yardley, 2008). It is a
… common problem for phenomenological researchers .. to be challenged in
defending their research in terms of references that do not belong to the methodology of phenomenology. This is especially challenging when external concepts of
validation, such as sample size, sampling selection criteria, members’ checking, and empirical generalization are applied to phenomenology. These are concepts that belong to the languages of different qualitative methodologies. (van Manen, 2016, p.347)
Pereira (2012) states that there are polarised views with regard to criteria for
phenomenological research, between the use of established qualitative criteria for all qualitative research and the use of redefined criteria specifically for phenomenological research as proposed by phenomenologists. Munhall (1994) proposes the “One P, Ten R’s” model (p.189) that lists Rigor as Readability, Resonance, Reasonableness,
Representativeness, Recognition, Raised consciousness, Relevance, Revelations,
Responsibility and most importantly, ‘the Phenomenological nodding’ as critical criterion that occurs as an instant response from the audience.
de Witt and Ploeg (2006) have proposed a framework of expressions of rigour specific to evaluating interpretive hermeneutic phenomenology (labelled ‘interpretive phenomenology’ by them), that I felt was suitable to be adopted for this study. Rigour is seen as reflecting the ‘goodness’ of qualitative research (Emden & Sandelowski, 1998), as thoroughness of the research (Yardley, 2008), while van Manen (1990) explicates rigour by stating that a “human science research is rigorous when it is ‘strong’ or ‘hard’ in a moral and spirited sense” (p.18).
My rationale for adopting de Witt and Ploeg’s (2006) framework is because it is informed by a synthesis of various sources, namely the work of the phenomenological scholars such as van Manen (1990, 1997) whose methodology guides this study, and a critical analysis and comparison of the theoretical and interpretive phenomenological nursing literature over a ten year period. This is set against Sandelowski’s (1986) criteria for rigour in generic qualitative research in order to identify the obstacles that constrain expression of rigour in interpretive phenomenology. The use of practical and recognizable terms was a key rationale for selecting de Witt and Ploeg’s (2006) framework to evaluate this study. de Witt and Ploeg’s (2006) expressions of rigour for interpretive phenomenology include balanced integration, openness,
concreteness, resonance, and actualization. I will list each of these five criteria and explain how I have met these in my research:
(i) ‘Balanced integration’, relates to the deeper articulation of the relevant philosophical concepts at all levels in terms of its ‘fit’ with both researcher and the research topic, the intertwining of the philosophy in the method and findings, while also ensuring a balance between the philosophical interpretation and the participants’ ‘voice’ ( de Witt & Ploeg, 2006).
Heidegger’s interpretive phenomenological philosophy and notion of ontology as being-in- the-world (Sheehan, 1998) was chosen as a core guiding philosophy. The methodology used in this study, namely van Manen’s (2016) interpretive-descriptive phenomenology, is aligned with Heidegger’s phenomenological philosophy (Mackey, 2005). van Manen’s (2016)
phenomenology of practice views teaching and pedagogy as an inclusive and ethical professional practice and thus provides a solid framework of intertwined philosophy and methodology in respect of the research topic and my own researcher positionality. The chosen philosophical concepts run as a thread through the entire study as the interpretation using the philosophy stays close to the participant context and their narratives, giving them ‘voice’ and revealing the underlying meaning of teaching in an intercultural context.
ii) ‘Openness’ is related to the researcher’s attunement and orientation in respect of the phenomenon being studied, which needs to be sustained throughout the research process; this becomes recognizable by explicitly and systematically accounting for decisions made during the course of the research, thus opening up the study for scrutiny (de Witt & Ploeg, 2006). As van Manen (1990) puts it, to be “strong in our orientation means that we will not settle for superficialities and falsities” (p.33) and to have an attunement means having patience and committing the time to reflect on the lived experience. There are several decisions that I have
had to make during the course of the project, beginning with deciding on my researcher positionality in respect of the choice of phenomenological orientation (Finlay, 2012), the size of the sample, and the choice of philosophical and theoretical framework to be used. These decisions have been guided by the methodology and the phenomenological epoché and reduction that kept me fully orientated and attuned by making me attentive to the work on hand and putting aside any external considerations by allowing me to identify my role in the project.
(iii) ‘Concreteness’ is related to the usefulness of the study for practice, hence its ability to relate the experience to the reader’s lifeworld by bringing out the context of the phenomenon (de Witt & Ploeg, 2006). This study is situated in a context that many readers could identify with as the topic is not abstract and deals with an everyday matter of teaching in higher education at an African public university. While not all my readers may have taught international students, they could have come across similar intercultural situations. The participants’ narratives are supported by quotations and their analysis remains grounded within their context, hence they are recognisable to a reader who is tuned to the context. Morgan (2011) states that validity is about providing a first person understanding and interpretation that is sufficiently supported by textual evidence to a reader who adopts a worldview similar to the researcher.
(iv) ‘Resonance’ is the experiential effect on the reader from their reading the report of the findings (de Witt & Ploeg, 2006). This relates to van Manen’s (2016) evaluative criterion labelled ‘inceptual epiphany’. van Manen (2016) states that “[a]s writers, we know that we have achieved epiphany when we have managed to stir our own self” (p.295); he cautions against becoming carried away by sentimentality or the catchiness of one’s own writing. This study has stirred my own consciousness and as a result I see myself moving decisively
towards increased inclusivity in my thinking, which can positively influence
internationalisation and teaching and learning at my institution. However, for a reader to be similarly influenced they would need to read the study from a “vantage point” (Gadamer, 2013, p.313) closer to mine. My participants have had an opportunity to critique a summary of my interpretation and to ascertain its feasibility from their own experiences (de Witt & Ploeg, 2006; Munhall, 1994); I had responses from nine out of thirteen participants and their feedback has been incorporated in my report. They found resonance and some of them used words such as ‘spot on’ in their responses. Finlay (2006) advises phenomenologists to reflexively take into account the issues that are at stake when presenting their research. This study with its focus on inclusivity and increased quality for all, is thought provoking and timely, at a moment when many higher education systems in Africa are gearing up to internationalise or are reviewing their policies on internationalisation.
(v) ‘Actualisation’ is the fifth and final proposed expression of rigour for interpretive phenomenology and it relates to the future effect of the resonance of the study findings (de Witt & Ploeg, 2006). However, de Witt and Ploeg (2006) also state that there is no
mechanism as yet to evaluate actualization. While the data used for the study relates to the past experiences of teachers, the meanings gleaned from the analysis and interpretation can be used to improve future initiatives in internationalisation and in building intercultural competence as a learning outcome; this could be beneficial in achieving a future vision for Africa.