The way we define learning and what we believe about the way learning occurs, has important implications for situations for facilitating changes in what people know and do (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Learning theories provide instructional designers with verified instructional strategies and techniques for facilitating learning, as well as foundations for intelligent strategy selection. According to Shuell, as interpreted by Schunk (1991: 2), “learning is an enduring change in behaviour, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion which results from practice or other forms of experience”. Schunk defined five questions to distinguish learning theories:
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i) How does learning occur?
ii) Which factors influence learning? iii) What is the role of memory?
iv) How does transfer of learning occur?
v) What types of learning are best explained by the theory?
Ertmer and Newby (1993) added two questions specifically important to the instructional designer:
i. What basic assumptions/ principles are relevant to instructional design? ii. How should instruction be structured to facilitate learning?
This section briefly outlines the basic concepts of educational learning theories such as behaviourism, cognitivism, and constructivism (Pritchard, 2010), by considering the abovementioned questions.
3.2.1 Behaviourism
Behaviourism is based on observable changes in behaviour which focuses on a new behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic, including the use of instructional cues, practice, and reinforcement (Pritchard, 2010). The key elements in the learning process are the stimulus, the response, and the association between the two. Behaviourists (e.g. Pavlov, Watson, Thondike and Skinner) did not explicitly address memory; although the acquisition of ‘habits’ is discussed, little attention is given as to how the ‘habits’ are stored or recalled. Learning involves discrimination (recalling facts), generalisation (defining and illustrating concepts), association (applying
explanations) and chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure). The role of a teacher is to:
i. Determine which cues can elicit the desired responses;
ii. Arrange practice situations in which prompts are paired with the target stimuli that initially have no eliciting power, but which will be expected to elicit the responses in the natural setting; and
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iii. Arrange environmental conditions so that students can make correct responses in the presence of those target stimuli and receive reinforcement (Gropper, 1987).
3.2.2 Cognitivism
In the late 1950s learning theory began to make a shift away from the use of
behavioural models to models from the cognitive sciences. Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures (Section 3.3.1). They focus on how information is received, organised, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Cognitivists presumably do not place great emphasis on environmental conditions to facilitate learning, but other factors such as learner’s thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values are also key elements of the learning process (Ertmer &Newby, 1993). Memory is regarded as prominent, because cognitivists regard it as the result of learning. The actual goal of instruction for behaviourism and cognitivism is often to communicate or transfer
knowledge to students. However, behaviourists focus on environmental condition while cognitivists emphasise efficient processing strategies. Specific assumptions that have direct to instructional design include:
The role of the teacher is to:
i) Understand that individuals bring various learning experiences to the learning situation which can impact learning outcomes;
ii) Determine the most effective manner in which to organise and structure new information to tap the learners’ previously acquired knowledge, abilities, and experiences;
iii) Arrange practice with feedback so that the new information is effectively and efficiently assimilated with the learners cognitive structure (Ertmer &Newby, 1993; Pritchard, 2010).
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3.2.3 Constructivism
Constructivism is based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema. The philosophical assumptions underlying both behaviourism and cognitive theories are primarily objectivism (Jonassen 1990), but the constructivist approach is more learner-centred.
Constructivists look at the learner as more than just an active processor of information (Pritchard, 2010). Learners create their own meaning of knowledge. Therefore, the goal of instruction is not to know particular facts, but to interpret and elaborate on
information. As one moves along the continuum from behaviourism and cognitivism, to constructivism, the focus of instruction shifts from teaching to learning, from passive transfer of facts, and routines to the active application of ideas to problems (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Both learners and environmental factors are important. The key elements in the learning process are activity (practice), concept (knowledge), and culture (context) (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Understanding can be facilitated by involvement in authentic tasks anchored in meaningful contexts. The role of the teacher is: i) to instruct learners on how to construct meaning, and ii) to align and design experiences for the learner so that authentic relevant contexts can be
experienced. Instructions in constructivism have the following principles (Ertmer & Newby, 1993; Pritchard, 2010):
i. An emphasis on the identification of the context in which the skills will be learned and subsequently applied;
ii. An emphasis on learner control and the capability to manipulate information; iii. The need for information to be presented in different ways;
iv. Supporting the use of problem solving skills to go beyond the information given; v. Assessment focused on the transfer of knowledge and skills.
Based on this brief comparative analysis of the three learning theories, this study is influenced by the constructivist perspective as discussed in the following sections.
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