The main purpose of the current research phase (IV) was to investigate further the correlates of paranormal belief while assessing real world potential of the MMUpbs. This phase extended research by assessing psychometric performance of the MMUpbs (validity and reliability) alongside a measure of mental toughness (MTQ48). This measured both the nature and composition of the paranormal measure whilst assessing it in terms real world performance. Findings revealed a negative relationship between the MMUpbs full scale and three subscales of MTQ48; challenge (r = -.25), control (r = -.36) and commitment (r = -.28). This research also assessed the validity and reliability of the MMUpbs as a global paranormal measure, while assessing paranormal subscales/facets alongside the cognitive measure. Findings revealed that subscales of the MMUpbs correlate with the MTQ48 full measure. Analysis reveals that level of paranormal belief decreases as level of mental toughness increases. Consequently, phase IV extends previous research, including further correlational analysis. Findings demonstrate that the new measure is both robust and reliable, while individual facets represent suitable standalone subscales of the full measure. This examination against the MTQ48 includes scope for future research by extending paranormal belief measurement in terms of individual subscales while pointing towards future research that may explore risk perception, decision-making, mental toughness and hardiness/resilience (Kobasa, 1979; Funk, 1992).
188
Current research provides a link between paranormal belief and low mental toughness (MTQ48). A significant negative correlation was found between the MMUpbs and MTQ48 (r = -.28**) suggesting that somebody high in mental toughness will be low in paranormal belief. However, whilst the majority of the mental toughness subscales also correlated with the full measure of the MMUpbs, two subscales did not: Confidence interpersonal (r = .10) and total confidence (r = -.08). This might suggest that increased level of endorsement for paranormal is not affected by level of interpersonal confidence nor total confidence. To the extent that confidence does not play a part in paranormal formation, mental toughness choices appear unrelated to paranormal endorsement. Similarly, the relationship between the subscales of MMUpbs and MTQ48 are in the weak range. This suggests that several of the subscales present differing psychological mechanisms (e.g., superstition, belief in extra-terrestrial) important in explaining subsequent endorsement. Both of the subscales (confidence interpersonal and total confidence) revealed low internal reliability, which suggests that an increased level of mental toughness may account for reduced paranormal belief/behaviours.
Generally, the current findings are supportive of the previous literature, which has shown that higher levels of mental toughness relate to a more rational thinking style. This suggests that individuals who possess higher levels of paranormal belief (MMUpbs) might be less successful in coping under pressure. The relationship appears weakened between paranormal belief and level of mental toughness, whilst the MTQ48 may be a moderating factor when exploring level of belief. Cautious interpretation is still required when considering current paranormal belief findings. It would be beneficial to further explore the conclusions from this research within additional studies i.e., risk perception (decision- making), to discover the degree to which risky choices/decisions correlate with a greater level of paranormal belief.
Additionally, if we postulate using Irwin’s (2003a, 2004) conjectures (implicates about formation and subsequent maintenance of paranormal beliefs) specifically, level of paranormal belief, level of emotion, and sense of control seen as a coping mechanism, then perhaps increased levels of mental toughness may reduce anxiety, enhance control and perhaps reduce paranormal belief (Irwin, 1994b, Wiseman and Watt, 2006). This depends upon degree to which belief is ingrained and more transitory, especially where people who hold paranormal beliefs perhaps possess psychological attributes meaning that they are
189
more likely to misattribute paranormal causation to normal experiences (Wiseman and Watt, 2006). The present findings therefore may extend to differences between more fluid beliefs (e.g., ghost/hauntings) than those considered less transitory (e.g., superstition). In this sense, it may affect levels of paranormal belief. Results reveal a trend for heightened levels of mental toughness, but this requires careful consideration in the context of paranormal belief endorsement. The elements of mental toughness (active subscales) may reduce aspects of belief in the paranormal particularly those associated with control. Control appears important; predominantly those who perceive little control over their own lives and consequently may be more prone to paranormal beliefs (Blackmore and Troscianko, 1985; Chorpita and Barlow, 1998). Accordingly, external locus of control (Dag, 1999; Groth-Marnat and Pegden, 1998), high anxiety (Watt et al., 2007) and emotional responsiveness form associations with belief in the paranormal (Irwin, 2000). Thus, this suggests those respondents scoring higher on mental toughness are less inclined to be paranormal believers.
In addition, several studies report an association between proneness to reality testing deficits and unconventional beliefs (particularly, belief in the paranormal, endorsement of urban legends and conspiracism) (e.g., Drinkwater et al., 2012). As such, emotion-based reasoning predicts level of paranormal belief (Irwin et al., 2012). Thus, believers tend to endorse paranormal occurrences because of their emotional rather than rational appeal (Sappington, 1990). It seems that individuals with high levels of paranormal beliefs have a different model of how the world works, based on a less ‘classically’ rational approach and a more emotion led style. If these findings are linked with those that mental toughness and associated with lower levels of emotional and passive coping mechanisms, we hypothesised that mental toughness would be linked to paranormal beliefs, which in turn would be suggestive of a less realistic/rational decision-making style. This lack of rational decision-making could link to risk taking, especially non-planned risk taking. Additionally, several of the subscale scores of the MTQ48 reveal significant negative and positive correlations with the subscales of the MMUpbs. However, the ET (extra-terrestrial) subscale fails to correlate with the majority of subscales (e.g., control of emotion (-.10) does not correlate with extra-terrestrial). This is interesting, because it suggests, many who are high in terms of mental toughness may believe in the existence of life (biological) on other planets but are unwilling to believe that aliens have visited earth.
190
It may also suggest that lower levels of emotion directly relating to high mental toughness are not good predictors of level of paranormal belief.
The current paranormal measure could further extend research to assess whether people who perceive or attribute more risk and or make riskier decisions, are prone to higher levels of paranormal beliefs. In this context, level of mental toughness may mediate level of paranormal belief. Therefore additional analysis/research is necessary while structural equation modelling (SEM, Hox and Bechger, 2001; Savalei and Bentler, 2006, 2010) or cluster analysis (CA, Anderberg, 2014) may permit acceptable scientific investigation (Jones et al., 2002). Clough et al. (2002) explored the concept of hardiness between elite sportsmen and women (Kobasa, 1979; Funk, 1992). Findings suggest hardiness may act as a shield from stress and appears related to improved performance in sport (Golby et al., 2002; Golby and Sheard, 2004).
The current research explored paranormal belief and mental toughness, but could easily establish additional stressful situations (Risk perception) assessing level of mental toughness, adaptive coping mechanisms, while expanding paranormal belief correlates in terms of certain decision-making strategies. Consequently, beliefs in the paranormal appear to share many of the MTQ48 traits (outlined from believers and their experiences), for example, mentally tough individuals are able to appraise stressful situations more positively and are able to employ adaptive coping behaviours (Clough et al., 2002). Perhaps the same also exists for those who embrace paranormal and believe in certain phenomena. Thus, future research could explore further relationships between MTQ48 and paranormal belief dimensions by ascertaining stressful situations (and or anxiety provoking scenarios). The potential practical applications of paranormal belief endorsement and the relationship to additional real world measures (e.g., decision-making or perception of risk) certainly need careful exposition. Mental toughness also requires further clarification as resilience and hardiness could explain some variance with belief in the paranormal.
Illustratively, hardy individuals may appraise stressful situations positively and are able to employ adaptive coping behaviours. Hardiness is a personality characteristic, which during times of injury reduces stress (Funk, 1992; Williams and Anderson, 1998). Nevertheless, no research to date has assessed this concept within this domain. In this context, participants deemed mentally tough, are those who appear to be more disciplined thinkers (Loehr, 1986). Furthermore, increased positive energy (especially during an
191
emergency), may enable the more mentally tough individual to remain relaxed, calm and energised enabling greater performance under uncertainty and hardship (Golby and Sheard, 2004). Problem resolution and increased positive attitude allows a greater capacity to work under pressure, make allowances/adaptation following mistakes, whilst improving performance (Kobasa, 1979; Loehr, 1986; Funk, 1992).
Additionally, Jones et al. (2002) suggest that mental toughness is a construct naturally developed that may provide a psychological edge, enabling sports men and women to cope better with the demands placed on their performance (Golby et al., 2002; Golby and Sheard, 2004). In this way, the more robust or resilient an individual is, may account for a level of determination and focused and confident performance under pressure (Clough et al., 2002). The important aspect is the self-belief of the individual to perform and sustain an ability to complete a victory over a rival and opponent. Finally, during such competitive endeavour many believe that this faith or belief in victory may lead to stronger mental toughness and vice versa (Clough et al., 2002). In this context, the introduction of paranormal beliefs and especially the MMUpbs has demonstrated the importance of such psychological constructs in further examining level of paranormal belief and its important in understanding real world experiences.
The current findings suggest the importance of assessing decision-making in relation to level of probabilistic reasoning and paranormal belief. It may be that important decision-making and probabilistic reasoning facets linked to the generation and maintenance of paranormal beliefs. Moreover, certain beliefs or judgements appear to affect choices made and the levels of perceived risk attributed to each choice made (Kobasa, 1979; Funk, 1992). The current research expanded work of both Clough et al. (2002) and Jones et al. (2002) by incorporating a paranormal measure alongside mental toughness MTQ48. In this way, certain aspects of the new paranormal belief measure would further establish the link between unconventional (anomalous) thinking, mental toughness and risk taking.
Furthermore, considering level of perceived risk alongside paranormal belief, lends scope for future research to incorporate alternate risk scales (see Risk Attitudes Scales, Rohrmann, 2005; Decision-Making Scale, Clough et al., 2002). Alternatively, attitude measurement may also be an area to include within new areas of research alongside
192
paranormal belief and mental toughness (see the Manual for the Wilson-Patterson Attitude Inventory, Wilson, 1975).
Conversely, previous research (Sjöberg and Wåhlberg, 2002) has outlined bias to experiential processing suggesting that paranormal believers may have a poorer appreciation of chance or have a propensity to increased probability misjudgements. Kouabenan (1998) reported that beliefs and social practices (religious rites, sacrifices, mystical, or para-scientific consultations, ritual, or initiation practices) influenced risk perception and the causal explanation of accidents. There is an association between risk/chance specifically where people who may believe in the paranormal do not perceive risk at the same level as those who are non-believers. Together those sorts of factors may be associated to be less of a mediator than those of mental toughness or paranormal. Finally, a positive correlation found that high paranormal belief is associated with a high perception of risk. For example, there is an association to overestimate levels of risk with NAP (Sjöberg and Wåhlberg, 2002; Sebald, 1984).
Research suggests a relationship between stress and anxiety and endorsement of paranormal beliefs (Wiseman and Watt, 2005, 2006). For example, superstitious belief associates with perceived social difficulties, relatively poor self-adjustment (low self- efficacy Tobacyk and Shrader, 1991; high trait anxiety Wolfradt, 1997), and irrational beliefs (Roig et al., 1998). In fact, many researchers suggest that paranormal and superstitious beliefs may develop in the more anxious individuals with a strong need for control, while attempting to overcome apparent uncertainty (Irwin, 2000; Jahoda, 1968; Malinowski, 1948).
The current research sought to develop a more comprehensive paranormal scale that incorporated several new items e.g. superstition, I do say ‘touch wood’ or actually touch wood to promote good luck, or, I do say ‘fingers crossed’ or actually cross my fingers to promote good luck. This not only increased the superstitious questions, thus expanding the construct allowing independent subscale use, but also utilised the MTQ48 assessing perceived levels of control, resilience and stress in relation to paranormal belief (Clough and Strycharczyk, 2012; Earle, 2012).
193
7.5. Future ideas for research
Future research could further examine the relationship between mental toughness and level of paranormal belief by exploring the role of control. While mental toughness appears to attenuate belief in the paranormal, there may also be room for exploration of perceived anxiety, stress and risk. In this case, the current research phase has no measures of locus of control, risk or anxiety and thus further research should aim to understand moderation that occurs between relationships. For example, the personal risk inventory (PRI)26 (Hockey et
al., 2000) measures risky behaviour via completion of choice dilemmas: should also be included to assess decisions/choices made by paranormal believers and non-believers in an attempt to explain variance and mediation effects.
There may also be room for future research to investigate paranormal beliefs using an intervention-based study. Additionally, future research using an intervention-based study, could investigate the effect of mental toughness training on paranormal beliefs. Previous research reports that mental toughness improves internal control and emotional coping mechanisms (Kobasa, 1979; Funk, 1992), these factors are established associates of paranormal belief. Thus, mental toughness training should indirectly through these variables decrease level of paranormal beliefs. Subsequent studies could extend this paradigm to include other unusual beliefs, such as urban legends and conspiratorial ideation. Findings could have important real-world applications (Crust, 2009; Taylor and Stanton, 2007). Particularly in job placement and training situations where unconventional beliefs may adversely influence performance (e.g., nuclear industry).
This could include consideration of beliefs at the subscale level. Furthermore, these factors could further assess paranormal belief, level of control (self-efficacy) exploring their impact on paranormal facets (French and Stone, 2013). Evaluation of mental toughness and paranormal groups will allow investigation of the effects of an intervention of mental toughness on level of paranormal belief within the general population. Finally, potential research should make use of gambling strategies in conjunction with the refined MMUpbs to examine links between paranormal belief, superstitious strategy and gambling.
26 PRI: choice situations frequently confronted by individuals in their normal lives
194 7.6. Conclusion
This phase established further MMUpbs validity and consistency in conjunction with the MTQ48. Consideration of the current findings suggests a need for further assessment/refinement to facilitate a more complete paranormal measure, and robust set of coherent paranormal subscales to establish psychometric coherence.
195 Chapter 8. General discussion