This thesis consists of six further chapters, which some of these chapters are based on published material.
In Chapter2the works of literature review related to theBEVs, the fundamental longi- tudinal dynamics of theBEVs, and factors that effect on the energy consumption of the
BEV are presented. In addition, an energy consumption characteristic map for a com- mercialBEVas the main contribution of this chapter is introduced with high coefficient of determination.
Chapter3presents the works of literature review related to theADAS,ACCsystems, and ecological driving strategies. In this chapter, the proposedEco-ACCsystem for optimal energy management of the BEV as well as road geometry models are introduced. In addition, a novel physical-statistical motion model for the preceding vehicle behaviour estimation is proposed as the main contribution of this chapter.
In Chapter 4, the works of literature review related to the MPC, NMPC with the automotive applications are presented. An overview of the OCPs and different types of deterministic as well as stochasticMPCs are provided. In addition, the proposed general
RSNMPC framework and its application on the Eco-ACC system for the BEV as the main contribution of this chapter is given.
Chapter5demonstrates the numerical simulation results and evaluation of the proposed
Eco-ACC system with the introducedRSNMPC. Robustness against model mismatch, capability of the risk-sensitive OCP, and performance of the proposed concept are pre- sented in this chapter.
In Chapter 6, the proposed semi-autonomousEco-ACC system for the BEV is experi- mentally implemented to validate the results of this study. The field experimental tests
are carried out on a closed test track to demonstrate the improvement of the energy consumption of theBEV.
The thesis concludes in Chapter7 with the findings, a discussion of the contributions of this study, and research direction of future outlook.
Electric Vehicle
The technological evolution of vehicles throughout these years turns them into more sophisticated machines. Development ofICEvehicles is one of the considerable achieve- ments of modern technology. Like most of the other technologies, modern technology of the vehicles is also associated with its own challenges in safety, energy requirement, and environmental contamination. A large number ofICEvehicles in use lead to serious problems for the environment and human life around the world. Air pollution and global warming are instances of problems of predominant concern. Today continuous innova- tion from the automotive industry and researchers aim at finding out new ways to reduce costs, increase transport efficiency, safety, and environmentally friendly technologies. It is now well recognised that EV, Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV), Fuel Cell Electric Ve- hicle (FCEV), and BEV are the most promising vehicle drivetrain technologies for the predictable future.
This chapter is structured as follows. Section 2.1 presents a brief overview of the de- velopment history of the BEVs. Section 2.2 introduces the longitudinal dynamics of a series-production BEV, followed by the energy consumption model of the BEV in Section2.3. Section2.4 concludes the findings of this chapter.
2.1
History of Electric Vehicle
The advent of automobiles revolutionised the human mobility. With the advancement of the technology in automobiles, roads were expanded and allowed people to travel faster and farther, which enlarge their connectivity. Due to the increasing number of automobiles, traffic regulations were developed to control vehicle’s movement in a systematic and safe way. TheEVis not a new concept in the automotive industry. The
Figure 2.1: First electric automobile to reach 100 km/h in 1899 ( c Public Domain).
history of EV began in the 19th century. Rechargeable batteries bring an applicable means for accumulating electricity on board of a vehicle. The vehicle with rechargeable battery was not introduced until 1859. Various people are associated with the EV
invention. Gustave Trouv´e, a French inventor, in 1881 and Thomas Parker, English inventor, in 1884 were the first persons who developed EV. The first practical lead- acid battery, which significantly improved the design of the battery was developed by a Luxembourgish engineer, Henri Owen Tudor, in 1886. The first EV in Germany was built by Andreas Flocken in 1888. William Morrison from Des Moines, Iowa was the first developer ofEV in the United States of America (USA) in 1890. For more details about the early EVs follow Guarnieri (2012).
Interests in the EVs expanded largely in the late 1890s and early 1900s since the EVs provide a level of comfort and ease of operation compared to ICEs. TheEV taxis were available at the end of the 19th century. Limited range of the EVs demonstrated to be less of a disadvantage among customers who used theEVs as city vehicles. Furthermore, an exchangeable battery supply was proposed in order to tackle the limited cruising range problem of the EVs in 1896. One of the most significant developments of theEV
in this decade was the invention of regenerative braking by Alexandre Darracq, French automobile manufacturer in 1897. This braking method could make the electric motor behave as a generator charging the battery that enhances the driving range significantly. The EVs have several notable records like breaking of the 100 (km/h) speed barrier by Camille Jenatzy with La Jamais Contente EV in 1899 (Figure2.1).
At the beginning of the 20th century, discoveries of large oil reserves, improved road infrastructure, and producing cheaper ICE vehicles. Advances in ICE vehicles make
them more flexible, powerful, and easier to handle. The longer range and their quicker refuelling times encouraged a rapid expansion ofICEvehicles and decreased the relative advantages of EVs. Some of the last commercially EVs were released around 1905. During nearly 60 years passed without a considerable renewal in EV technology. In 1947, one of the most important inventions was developed at Bell Laboratories, the transistor. This made possible to efficiently deliver power to an electric motor with variable frequency. In the late 1950s, despite some improvements in performance with respect to the previousEVs, they were found much expensive in compare to equivalent
ICEvehicles. In the late 1960s, a new battery based on lithium was developed. During the 1970s, the energy crisis raised and in addition concerns about the environmental contaminations triggered some interest in research onEVs. In 1971, the most significant
EVnamed moon buggy collected a unique distinction of becoming the first human driven vehicle on the Moon during the Apollo 15 mission.
Although some technological progress achieved in the EVs, it became clear during the 1980s and early 1990s thatEVs could hardly compete withICE vehicles for range and performance. The reason is a high weight to energy ratio stored in batteries than gasoline for the same energy content. Throughout the 1990s, interest in fuel-efficient, and environmentally friendly vehicles was reduced due to lower oil prices. However, after the global economic recession in the late 2000s, automotive manufacturers abandoned the productions of fuel inefficient vehicles. Some governments initiated the policy of moving toward more fuel efficient, and lower emissions vehicles. In 2008, the first highway capable EV in serial production, which uses lithium-ion battery cells was accessible in the USA and expressed a goal of having one million EVs on the roads by 2015. During the recent years, after several failures in the competitions withICEvehicles, the
EVs started to emerge in the market again with promising features. Many automotive manufacturers have been introducing their ownEV models while the global interest in the EV’s technology and its markets is growing. For more details about the EVs, see, e.g., Eberle et al. (2010) and Hosseinpour et al. (2015).