212 DEBE EXISTIR UNA CIERTA PROPORCIONALIDAD ENTRE EL

Non-confrontation can be found in hierarchical societies in asymmetric types of dialogue in which interactants have unequal rights and abilities (Linell & Luckmann 1991). The speaker who possesses lower power and ability than the hearer will be unlikely to win through direct confrontation. Non-confrontation is a technique of evasion and avoidance which is more helpful for the speaker in the pursuit of their communicative goals. I view that this characteristic is important in the diplomatic conversation event in which the speaker from a lower-power state encounters the representative of the more powerful state; the vertical relationship worldview can be adopted for identifying the speaker’s position in relation to the hearer.

The avoidance of uncertainty, according to Hofstede’s findings (2001, Hofstede et al. 2010), can explain Thais’ displays of non-confrontation. Brown and Levinson’s concept that

almost all interpersonal communications are face threatening (1987), illustrates social encounters. It is usual that the speaker may feel uncertain and insecure when encountering a person s/he does not know very well and/or a person who can exercise power over him/her. So, high power and high distance are the factors that make the speaker carefully regulate their behaviour.

Direct confrontations are avoided because of the importance of face concern in communication in vertical relationships. Wannaruk (2008:328) points out that in Thai customs it is accepted that the higher-status person has more communicative power than the lower status one. They are likely to be more direct and assertive when talking with a lower- status person. Specifically, in the Thai seniority system, when an older person loses face, the perception of this loss is greater than normal because they have a prominent, respected status. Thai children are trained by family and in school about obedience. Guidance from a senior person is highly valued; younger people are supposed to trust in the senior person’s goodwill and extra experience. Some young Thais cope with conflicts, especially with parents and teachers, by presenting themselves as a good listener, which is the sign of respect or self-

143 effacement, rather than making an effort to explain their own views. Challenge and confrontation is not a wise choice of communication in Thai society where inequality is nurtured within the relational model of protection and patronage.

Directness can be interpreted as a challenge, “Thai people place high value on deference to rank and respect for authority...A challenge to authority and power can lead to

personal disputes” (Sirussadaporn-Charoenngam & Jablin 1999:5). High-context

communication and indirectness is the effect of politeness in a hierarchical society. Small hints in utterances can save the speaker from being perceived as the opponent of the higher- status hearer. Phukanchana (2004) develops eight propositions of Thai politeness choices in disagreement. Many of them involve awareness of age, social position, and relationship

concerns, for example, a Thai superiors’ use of the bald on-record strategy is socially

acceptable, whereas subordinate Thais tend to use an off-record strategy. Other strategies include joking in a mixture of positive politeness and off-record reactions—comments made by a parliamentary member to the Chair in the Thai Parliament (Deephuengton 1992: 73-74 cited in Phukanchana 2004:12), or silence accompanied by a neutral facial expression, which is socially-acknowledged as sign of politeness in Thai society (Phukanchana 2004:17).

The research by Phukanchana (2004) gives the impression that the individuals struggling in a hierarchical system are not doing so to gain equal power, rather they are struggling within the scope of their power and at the position they possess. Possessing power is not always desired because a low-power person gains low responsibility and thus more protection. In this unequal power situation, the weak are not forgotten or blamed, but they are cared for and forgiven for their mistakes. So, in this kind of society, people do not have to express as much as possible to gear power bargaining with the hearer—“I have the right to be

right as you do”. Instead, the quantity of the message is reduced because of careful power

management in the high-power society. It has been found that Thai expression is very succinct, with much omitted. The Thai language has less variation in formulaic expressions than English and the situations where intentions can be verbalised are fewer than in the English norm (Intachakra 2001).

This non-competition in communication is supported by Hofstede and his colleagues’ studies (2001, 2010) which classify Thailand as a feminine society in which social members have a preference for cooperation, modesty, and caring for the weak. Because victory is not

144 the highest goal in life, communication in a feminine society tends to be less assertive than in a masculine society which concentrates on competition and rewards victory.

Overall, to a certain degree, the use of politeness in Thai society serves the

individuals’ way of life within their particular societal constraints: hierarchy and

interdependence. Politeness which stresses unequal relationships and making compromises

can be described as “bend, but do not break”—losing some is better than losing all. The main

features of Thai politeness are empathetic accountability and displays of considerateness and flexibility, as shown above where I have demonstrated volition in Thai politeness and deliberate means of Thai non-confrontation.

III. Politeness in Thai English

Analysing some example data which are not Standard English requires an understanding about the characteristics of the English language as produced by Thai users. The previous findings are the background knowledge which guide data interpretation. These results increase an awareness of what was studied, how to use the results in data analysis, and how this research can build on the existing knowledge. According to the previous findings, Thai politeness culture influences Thai English as follows: