Las demás que resulten necesarias para el debido funcionamiento del PSM.

This section presents the context, origins and principles of the lifelong learning approach. Many countries failed to develop policies to implement the lifelong education approach during the 1980s (Belanger, 2015; Hager, 2011). Hager (2011) also cites criticism by educational writers as a contributing factor to the decline of interest in education that happens throughout an individual’s lifespan at this time. Instead, a strong interest in learning as a continuum (the lifelong learning approach) resurfaced mainly as a result of the neoliberal framework in the 1990s (Belanger, 2015; Hager, 2011; Jarvis, 2009; Preece, 2009). Belanger (2015) referred to it as a ‘second wave’. The influence of the neoliberal framework on the lifelong learning approach is discussed in detail under the section, ‘Lifelong learning and the neoliberal framework’ below.

Whilst lifelong education focuses on the state as the provider of educational services, the lifelong learning approach emphasizes the learner’s responsibility to acquire skills, attitudes, knowledge and understanding and to use them to address daily challenges (Barros, 2012; Preece, 2009; Rule, 2011). Lifelong learning is viewed as an ideology focusing on the individuals to acquire skills so as to be more productive in their work places (Boshier, 2011; Preece, 2009). Preece (2009) cites Jarvis (1998) who argues that, whilst education, as provided by the state, is a public phenomenon, learning is done by the individual privately and happens throughout the individual’s lifespan. The principles of lifelong learning are that learning is lifelong, life-wide and life-deep (Banks et al., 2007; Belanger, 2015; Duke & Hinzen, 2012; Singh, 2015). To understand learning using these three principles entails

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understanding that learning is not only about continuous learning, but it is also about unlearning and forgetting as some skills become obsolete (Medel-Anonvevo, 2002).

3.4.1 Learning as lifelong

The first emphasis of learning as lifelong is that it happens throughout an individuals’ lifespan. Literature, however, tends not to agree on when a lifespan begins. Whilst some literature argue that learning begins from the ‘womb’ (Jarvis, 2009; Torres, 2011) most literature presents the need to learn from the cradle to the grave (Aspin, 2007; Duke & Hinzen, 2012; Medel-Anonvevo, 2002; Ouane, 2011; Preece, 2009; Yang, 2015). This study, however, will not dwell on the ‘when’ it starts but that it happens throughout the individual’s lifespan, whether from the womb or birth to the grave.

The other main emphasis of the lifelong learning approach is its being continuous ‘to equip people with resources to deal with a fast changing and uncertain world’ (Preece, 2009). The approach states that individuals are continuously in need of acquiring skills, knowledge and competencies for them to function within society at any given stage. The rapid global developments in technology have resulted in new and innovative ways of communicating information. According to Ouane (2002), this information is communicated to individuals, communities and societies at a speed that has resulted in the world being a global village. To cope with these developments and the socio-political-economic context that has also changed, continuous acquisition of skills and knowledge (learning) throughout life is necessary.

Therefore, within the lifelong learning approach, the learner is responsible for the transition and pathways between the different educational systems including school to work, and between the work place and education and training systems (Crowther, 2004; Preece, 2009). The learner is also responsible for acquiring skills during the lifespan, to be able to manage interpersonal sociability, reflect on the belief systems and adapt to new experiences in response to daily needs.

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3.4.2 Learning as life-wide

According to Torres (2011), lifelong learning should be viewed as a much wider concept than as only temporal. Rather, the emphasis is that learning can take place at all times, at all levels and by many means: formal, non-formal and informal (Belanger, 2015). This learning is needed by individuals to fulfil personal purposes, social purposes, economic purposes and social cohesion (Gvaramadze, 2007). According Bank et al., (2007), learning can take place in a variety of forms and settings such as in family, workplace, communities, and leisure settings throughout the life of the individual. The breadths of experiences in these settings are a source of adversity, comfort, support in people’s lives and they develop the ability to adapt to new situations, ranging from unfamiliar to complex issues.

Learning as life-wide also entails the assessment and recognition of knowledge, skills and competencies acquired through the demonstration of the individual’s know-how as applied knowledge. Individuals demonstrate their understanding, knowledge, values, and attitudes in responding to everyday life rather than only through qualifications recognized or accredited through formal educational institutions and programmes. In other words, in life-wide learning the acquired competencies and skills should enable individuals to be responsible citizens.

3.4.3 Learning as life-deep

Life-deep learning ‘embraces religious, moral, ethical and social values that guide what people believe, how they act, and how they judge others and themselves’(Banks et al., 2007, p. 12). Belanger (2015) argues that learning has not happened unless people find personal meaning in what they are learning and are able to assimilate, and subsequently mobilize what they have learnt. He refers to learning as an intimate experience that strengthens inner joy and a sense of who we are (ibid., p. 11).

Literature interprets education and learning as an interactive process between the provider (supply side) interests and the needs of the learner (the demand side) (Aspin, 2012; Ouane, 2011). In my view, education and learning should be viewed not as parallel processes, but as collaboratively linked with the sole purpose of producing a lifelong learner. Learning should not be left only in the hands of the learner but the state should seek learners’ voices in order to provide educational interventions that are relevant to the learners’ needs within the learners’ context.

In concluding this section, I support the argument that the emphasis on the individual taking responsibility for learning that would lead to one’s happiness does not remove the

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responsibility of governments or education providers (Crowther, 2004; Rule, 2011). The lifelong learning approach should emphasize the role of both the individual and the state as essential to equip a learner to cope with the changing requirements of the world (Ouane, 2011). The lifelong learning approach should create a more balanced approach to a system of education and learning (Duke & Hinzen, 2012). It should emphasize developing the lifelong learning characteristics through the lifelong, life-wide and life-deep learning endeavour. The purpose of lifelong learning should be to develop a lifelong learner; to enable individuals and societies to live a meaningful life; and to identify and solve everyday challenges for personal and social development. Therefore, there should be a partnership between the learner and the provider in the development of a lifelong learner who would not be passive but be able to address life challenges, such as those faced by youths characterized as NEETs.