Diseño de mecánicas

The effects of climate change on pollination are poorly studied yet important issue. So far it has been shown that the most important effect of climate change is an increase in temperatures. Because insects and plants may react differently to changed temperatures it causes two kinds of mismatches in the plants-pollinator interaction: temporal and spatial mismatch. Mismatches may affect plants by reduced insect visitation and pollen deposition, while pollinators experience reduced food availability. Coope (1995) gives three possible scenarios for species’ responses to large-scale climatic changes:

1. Adaptation to the new environment 2. Emigration to another suitable area 3. Extinction

The first response is unlikely, since the expected climate change will occur too rapidly for populations to adapt by genetic change (evolution). As temperatures increase and exceed species’ thermal tolerance levels, the species’ distributions are expected to shift towards the poles and higher altitudes (Deutsch et al. 2008; Hegland et al. 2009). On the other hand, wild pollinators might not be able to follow the movement of crops. Bees which are specialised are more likely to have difficulties whereas generalist species have more options to survive (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. 2008). This is a risk to biodiversity. It has also been shown that climate change together with habitat degradation and/or fragmentation cause severe problems to pollinators (Warren et al. 2001). Loss of pollinators is thus a problem where multiple drivers’ mutual effects should be studied carefully. The European Climate Adaptation Platform (CLIMATE- ADAPT19_{) aims to support Europe in adapting to climate change. It is an initiative of the European} Commission and helps users to access and share information on:

• Expected climate change in Europe

• Current and future vulnerability of regions and sectors • National and transnational adaptation strategies

• Adaptation case studies and potential adaptation options • Tools that support adaptation planning

7.3.2.8. Birds Directive

The Birds Directive (79/409/EEC, see also 2009/47/EC) was adopted in 1979 and aims to protect and conserve wild bird species naturally occurring in the EU. European Member States must conserve, maintain and restore the bird habitats by:

• Creating protection zones; • Maintaining habitats;

• Restoring destroyed biotopes; (and) • Creating biotopes

Birds do not have a significant role in pollination in Europe but still all these activities may also have a positive effect on pollinators as they increase biodiversity and possibly maintain pollinatorfriendly habitats. Globally some bird species, such as hummingbirds, sunbirds, honeycreepers and some parrot species are important pollinators, too. According to FAO (2008) on a global scale “26 species of hummingbirds, 7 species of sunbirds and 70 species of passerine birds – all of which are known to pollinate plants” are endangered. Many pollinators are also important food sources for higher animals and their loss may threaten predatory bird species (IRGC 2009).

7.3.2.9. Plant Protection Products Directive

The Plant Protection Products Directive (91/414/EEC) of 15 July 1991, concerning the release of plant protection products, regulates the sale of pesticides and herbicides within the EU. The directive aims to ensure that marketed products do not pose a threat to human, animal and environmental health. The Regulation 396/2005 on pesticide residues in food and feed is closely related. Both Directive 91/414 and Regulation 396/2005 aim at a high level of protection of human health and the environment. As pesticides are known to pose a risk to pollinators (ECPA 2011; Eardley et al. 2006; Kevan 1977; Johansen and Mayer 1990) these EU policies are likely to benefit the ESS pollination, too.

7.3.2.10. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Directive and rural development policies

The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Directive (Directive 85/337/EEC) was introduced in 1985. The aim of this directive is to provide a high level of protection of the environment and to contribute to the integration of environmental considerations into the preparation of public or private projects before authorising their implementation. Construction work and other interventions in the natural surroundings are considered as projects that fall within the scope of the Directive. More specifically, the EIA Directive identifies the need to assess the effects of a project on:

• Human beings, fauna and flora;

• Soil, water, air, climate and the landscape;

• The interaction between the factors mentioned in the first and second indents; and • Material assets and the cultural heritage.

EIA is an important tool for land use policies. As pointed out above changes in land use have been identified as one of the drivers behind pollinator loss (Potts et al. 2010, FAO 2008) due to the accompanying loss of nesting and foraging sites. While land use policies and management are usually implemented more at the Member State than EU level, the EIA is one way to ensure sustainable land use development within EU.

7.3.2.11. Forest policies

Another prominent land use within the EU is forestry. A case study by Priess et al. (2007) on different land use scenarios in Sulawesi, Indonesia, showed that depending on the magnitude and location of ongoing forest conversion, pollination services are expected to decline continuously and thus directly reduce coffee yields by up to 18%, and net revenues per hectare up to 14% within the next two decades (compared to average yields of the year 2001). Currently, forests in the study area annually provide

pollination services worth € 46 per hectare. However, simulations also revealed a potential win-win constellation, in which ecological and economic values can be preserved, if patches of forests (or other natural vegetation) are maintained in the agricultural landscape. Although the results from the case study in the tropics cannot be readily transferred to Europe as climate and other factors vary considerably it can be assumed that European forests also contribute to pollination services (MA 2005). While forestry policy mainly lies with each Member States there is a common EU forestry strategy, which is currently under review. While in a report from the workshop on the review of the EU forestry strategy (EC, 2011f) pollination is not mentioned explicitly, a general valuation and payment for non-wood products and services and ecosystem services is suggested.

7.3.2.12. Environmental Liability Directive

The Environmental Liability Directive (2004/35/EC), based on the “polluter pays principle”, was adopted on 30 April 2004 and came into force on 30 April 2007. It establishes a common framework for liability, preventing and remedying damage to animals, plants, natural habitats and water resources, and damage affecting the land. It seeks to ensure that, in the future, environmental damage in the EU is prevented or remedied and that those who cause it are held responsible. This directive may be applicable, directly or indirectly, to loss of pollinators.

The above mentioned directives and regulations are the most evident policy frameworks for pollination. However, there are other policy areas, which should also be considered even if the connection has not been empirically verified or is otherwise poorly known. For example, effects of climate change on pollination are highly debated, however, there is lack of empirical evidence about the connection (Bartomeusa et al. 2011; Stein et al. 2009). EU Regulations related to climate change might therefore also be relevant for pollination (EC 2011g). Furthermore, environment is considered as one determinant for public health in the European Health Strategy. However, the European environment and health strategy of 11 June 2003 [COM(2003) 338] does not mention the pollinators or pollination explicitly. Yet, the connections between food security, agriculture and pollination are evident (FAO 2008). Since agricultural products are part of world economy, also EU trade policy has indirect links to pollinators through creating pressures (e.g. population growth and demand for food supplies), which in turn influence the direct drivers of pollinator loss, e.g. intensifying agriculture.