Teachers have been identified as critical to the adoption of ICT into school educa in the previous sections of the review. To clarify their position and reaction to this innovation the review examines the general literature on innovation diffusion to identify the characteristics and skills teachers need if the potential of ICT is to be developed in education to a similar degree to that found in other areas of society. Th review examines aspects of teacher culture which make them hesitant to ado
innovation, and professional development approaches that have been used.
tion
e pt this
ne view is that “technologies have trajectories” (Bijker & Law, 1992). However, in O
there is a considerable literature of innovation diffusion processes that goes beyond this deterministic view. Rogers (1995) defined the process of innovation diffusion terms of four elements. These four elements occur when an innovation is
communicated through certain channels over time amongst the members of a social system. He also described five essential characteristics of innovations:
• Relative advantage (the innovation appears to be better than what was previou available)
• Compatibility (it matches what people already know) • Complexity (people can understand it)
• Trialability (something people can try in a limited way) • Observability (potential adopters are able to see the results).
This understanding of innovation diffusion has been widely accepted as a basis for sly
rther studies. A key element in Rogers’ model of innovation diffusion is the change
d their tion s fu
agent, who is frequently more technically competent than his/her peers, but can still communicate the essence of the innovation to them effectively (Rogers, 1995, p. 19). Rogers describes the change agent as “a marginal figure with one foot in each of two worlds,” a situation which often leads to role conflicts and problems in
communication. This conflict is generally due to their technical competence an need to relate to potential adopters who have different socio-economic status, beliefs and attitudes. Clayton (1993) extended Rogers’ description of the innovation adop process by identifying a sixth element of ‘ownership’, exemplified by the apparent emergence of the innovation from a source internal to the organisation. Kazlauska (1995) concurred, and described the importance of accommodation cycles for
innovation diffusion. Parker and Sarvary (1994) tested the diffusion model using a multi-national survey methodology in relation to a set of home-office consumer electronics innovations. They extended Rogers’ theory by identifying alternative pathways for the spread of an innovation within a social system. They concluded the perceptual product factor of ‘relative advantage’ was the most significant direct factor influencing diffusion, confirming Rogers’ model in regard to this factor. The demographic factors of ‘parent ownership’ and the psychographic factor of
‘venturesomeness’ were the next most significant, along with other perceptual produc factors such as ‘complexity’.
Alternatives to the Rogers’ model have been pro
that
t
posed by Valente (1995), Hord, Hall, oucks-Horsely & Huling (1987) and Rebentisch (1995). Valente (1995) posits a
f odel ip. or ICT o way of ership’ either of the equipment itself, or control over s disposition, is also another important factor which will influence adoption.
king L
social network background for the majority of innovations, which attributes most o the diffusion process to communication links between individuals. Valente also examines the role of thresholds and develops the idea of a ‘critical mass’ of the population who must become adopters before the innovation will become more generally adopted. Hord et al., (1987) proposed the Concerns-Based Adoption M as a diagnostic tool for effective staff development. Rebentisch (1995) proposed a technology-transfer model and found that more complex technologies required relatively more effort to complete their transfers than did simpler technologies. Despite these alternatives, it is clear from the literature that innovation diffusion depends upon the communication of observable relative advantage and ownersh Setting these findings from the innovation diffusion literature into the domain f integration in school education, it can be seen that teachers need to have exposure t authentic exemplars before they can assess the ‘relative advantage’ of this new working. It is also clear that ‘own
it
Evidence of these findings was confirmed empirically by a group of teachers wor in a primary school selected to be a ‘lighthouse’ for ICT (Ramus, Elliott, Green, Dickinson, Parsons, DiIorio, Huygen, deWacht & Frank, 1998). Over an eighteen month period the staff became “convinced that the provision of notebooks for all teachers was a most effective use of technology” (p. 6). The school quadrupled its
professional development spending; and the teachers used ICT for administration, teaching and material preparation within a collegial context. They indicated areas where this approach was successful with students as including: acceleration through curriculum levels, the intrinsic and instant rewards of success with the software, development of independent skills, co-operative group work and peer tutoring, as well as broadening/enhancement of personal achievements across levels (Ramus et al., 1998, p. 43). The ‘ownership’ factor for innovation diffusion has been used in far
larger ts
opera
(Depa oria
(Depa
The a r
professional development can also be extended to the area of cultural conflict.
, anaged to separate the desirable from
alue of information technology quity being a strong concern
l instrument to support equal e of particular concern to teacher professional development programs, with laptops for teachers projec ting on a regional basis across the UK (Becta, 2003), Western Australia
rtment of Education, Western Australia, 2002) and in Victoria (State of Vict rtment of Education & Training), 2002).
pplication of the innovation diffusion literature to the special case of teache Teachers operate in a social and socialising context, where their evaluation of an innovation is in terms of its benefit or deleterious effects. The viewpoint of the evaluator is critical to this judgement, as Rogers acknowledges, describing the definition of “good”, as a value judgement, which depends very much upon cultural perspective (Rogers, 1995, p. 343). It could be argued that beneficial consequences can, in fact, be maximised and undesirable consequences, at least in the short-term minimised or negated. But Rogers denies this in his generalisation 11-1, saying that “the effects of an innovation cannot be m
undesirable consequences”. This distinction is particularly important when considering the social consequences of an innovation such as increased social stratification, and consequent internal inequalities. Agreement of benefit between both internal and external evaluator viewpoints would seem to be a necessary condition for such a judgement.
Therefore the viewpoints of both teaching staff and other elements of the school community need to be considered when assessing the v
in schools. Teachers have internal cultural values, with e for most teaching staff. The school can be seen as a socia justice for all in society at large. What might therefore b
teachers is the suggestion that a relatively high cost innovation can lead to increased advantage of the innovation ill be in opposition to the local culture of equity. Thus the perceived consequences
titude nian context by 1998 where teachers:
… noted that "computers are the focus of some friendship groups", and that these groups
ent
chofield and Davidson (2000). The project ulate teachers in a large urban school system to use the Internet in their inequality. In such a case the perceptual factor of relative
w
of the innovation are likely to have a significant impact upon its rate of diffusion. Teachers are particularly worried by such social impacts of computers, as was shown in Fluck (1995, p. 69) where they expressed fears about social isolation. This at appeared to change in the Tasma
"cross social boundaries" indicating that membership was socio-economically heterogeneous. When prompted as to their reaction about computers promoting social isolation, these teachers saw computer-using students forming groups (called 'geek gangs' in one school) similar to those formed by students interested in sport, surfing, dressing in fashion, riding horses or doing academic studies. (Fluck, 2001, p. 50) We now focus inwards on the role of the teacher as a change agent. Moving from general theories of innovation, we need to see where teachers (particularly those in Australia) are in terms of accommodating to ICT, and what professional developm is being provided for them. The studies reviewed below show the diverse nature of such professional development, and the relationship between its extent and classroom consequences. The review also brings out the concomitant factors necessary for professional development to be fully effective.
An informal professional development process was used in the Common Knowledge: Pittsburgh project, as described by S
sought to “stim
work”. It provided the necessary equipment in teachers’ classrooms, and appropriate technical support. While not all teachers who applied and were accepted into this five- year scheme were in agreement, the following findings were reported by the authors as common to a substantial proportion of the group:
• work-related communication with others increased • interactions within and beyond the school increased • opportunities for professional development increased • they learned more about computing and the Internet
• some became school-based network administrators • they had increased professional pride and enthusiasm.
In the view of their principals, the Internet access project "gets them [teachers the same old rut", and refocused teacher conversation from constant complaints ab "kids driving me crazy" to lively discus
] out of out sions of what they were accomplishing
chofield & Davidson, 2000).
nal development, structured through a ocationally-based outcomes specification (Department of Education, Tasmania,
the Catholic Education Office in Parramatta (see http:/
http:/
profe ut
the be he diversity of
expectations.
Other aspects of teacher ICT professional development were considered by Elizabeth
Byrom y into
education program
progression and inferred this process genera ive years. A RAND study in her review indicated that 30 percent of a school technology budget should be
alloca .
Unles ey
could practice and use it for operational reasons within a short time of being trained, (S
This example of indirect professional development through equipment provision was paralleled by the ‘laptops for teachers’ scheme in Victoria (Australia) where 67 percent of teachers reported gaining intermediate or advanced IT skills (Department of Education, Employment and Training (Victoria), 2000, p. 32). The Tasmanian Graduate Certificate of Education (Computing for Teaching and Learning) was another example of indirect professio
v
2000). Another syllabus that has been considered for a variety of professions is the International Computer Driving Licence (Australian Computer Society, 2002b). Courses following this syllabus have been supplied to teachers in the Australian Capital Territory and by
/activated.decs.act.gov.au/prof_learn/online_learn_icdl.htm and
/www.ceo.parra.catholic.edu.au/pdf/bits/March01.pdf). The diversity of these ssional development approaches indicates the lack of common agreement abo
st way to prepare teachers for the general use of ICT, and/or t
(1997) who reviewed the literature on the integration of technolog s. Her review concurred with the ACOT stages of teacher
lly took three to f
ted to staff development, and this should take place on-site and ‘just in time’ s the equipment was available to staff immediately after a workshop, so th
the training effort would be wasted. In a related paper Byrom (1998) identified the factors influencing the effective use of technology in teaching and learning identifie through a project working intensively with 12 schools in the south east of the US There was a significant positive correlation between the amount and level of equipment and technical assistance provided and subsequent movement along th continuum of technology integration.
The relationship between professional develo
d A. e
pment and technology access/capacity ppears to be a significant factor in the development process for ICT in education, as was found by Schofield and Davidson (2000) when teachers involved in their project
b et improved y. ICT re (Downes et al., 2002, p. 23) a
ecame more technology-centred. This also suggests that schools that g
learning results from ICT will have addressed this issue, either directly or indirectl This is not a surprising result, and basically argues that development will be faster where better resources are available.
An extensive review of teacher professional development with respect to ICT was carried out by Downes, Fluck, Gibbons, Leonard, Matthews, Oliver, Vickers, & Williams (2002). In this review the authors identified four distinct approaches to in education by asking:
‘What educational outcomes do schools and systems hope to achieve by increasing the extent to which ICTs are integrated into classroom practice?’ From the information gathered in response to this question it is evident that, in Australia as well as overseas, educators are promoting ICT use in classrooms for several distinct reasons. These include:
• Type A: encouraging the acquisition of ICT skills as an end themselves; • Type B: using ICTs to enhance students’ abilities within the existing curriculum; • Type C: introducing ICTs as an integral component of broader curricular reforms that a changing not only how learning occurs but what is learned;
• Type D: introducing ICTs as an integral component of the reforms that alter the organisation and structure of schooling itself.
It is evident that the nature and type of professional development needs to be aligned with which of these approaches the school is taking to ICT. The review found that school reforms have been increasingly linked to an embedded use of ICT which enables students to undertake authentic multi-disciplinary tasks. Further, these reforms are spreading beyond the school gate as ICT links students to and from external agencies. Therefore it becomes more important to look at ways of conducting teacher professional development at both pre-service and in-service levels that
encompass this type of learning experience.
2.4.1 Issues from the literature about professional development
It is clear from the literature that the ICT professional development of teachers is crucial to their role as change agents or adopters of this innovation. Teachers may not feel that they have the background or duty to prepare students for careers or working life that strongly depends upon ICT. Yet there are economic forces at work which suggest this is precisely what they should be doing. Moreover, children are coming to school with increasingly diverse yet increasingly common experiences of ICT at home. How then should teachers react? The social rationale for ICT argues they should ensure all children have the opportunity to develop familiarity with computers. However, teachers have expressed concerns about the social isolation they have observed amongst students who are intensive computer users (Fluck, 1995, pp. 47-48). The third rationale, pedagogy, is a disputed territory, with no clear 2 sigma advantage for ICT (Kraver, 1997), and only an improvement of the 0.3-0.4 effect size is evident in the literature, which is comparable with other innovations. Within these boundaries there are some indicators of the conditions required for ICT to
demonstrate a pedagogical improvement. According to Byrom (1997) and Smerdon et al. (2000) ICT budgets should allocate a minimum of 30 percent for on-site and ‘just in time’ training and to provide at least 9 hours training per teacher per year. The training should be aligned to school expectations, depending upon the level of
response expected in the Downes et al. (2002) list of reason types. Also, ownership is a vital ingredient to change management processes, and this has been taken into account in many professional development programs through laptop schemes for teachers (Clayton, 1993; Ramus et al., 1998).