Capítulo III: Plan de Marketing
3.1. Estrategia de marketing
Community Seed Banks (CSBs) were set up in Tigray in northern Ethiopia during times of war. CSBs were first developed in 1988 as a response to hardship and famine, and from 1991 they were seen as instruments of post war recovery. During the 1990s, with the situation gradually returning to normal, government services entered agricultural development. They provided farmers with ‘packages’ of improved seeds and fertilizers. Since then, government seed supply services have changed and the influence of the private seed sector has grown.
Traditional seed selection is in decline in many communities in Ethiopia, and not all farmers have physical or economic access to certified seed. Therefore, alternative approach towards seed supply offered by the CSB deserves careful examination.* In this section, we aim to respond to a number of questions aimed at
assessing the impact of CSBs on the informal seed system. Our leading questions are: Is it possible through CSBs to revive and strengthen farmers’ culture of seed selection? Could CSBs and a revived culture help to improve the quality of the seeds that farmers use? And could CSBs contribute to seed security and to improving the livelihood of the poorer households?
The beginning of seed banks: a community response
Collaboration and community action are common features of adaptation to crisis, including famine survival strategies. The idea of organizing seed banks emerged from
community meetings in Tigray after the famine of 1984/85. People had noticed that some farmers managed the crisis better than others, in spite of equal exposure to the disaster. The farmers that could cope better happened to be known as good seed selectors; the quality of their seeds could therefore explain the differences in ability of dealing with the crisis. The seed banks mobilized the best seed selectors and used their selection skills to supply poorer farmers with good quality seeds.
Design and operation of the community seed banks
The CSBs in Tigray were established by REST, the Relief Society of Tigray. They were supported by the Development Fund and operations started in 1989. They were organized at woreda (district) level and operated at tabia (local) levels; each seed bank was governed by a seed bank committee. The committee was chaired by the representative of the local assembly. Both local seed selectors and professional agriculturalists were member of the committee. Together they identified farms with quality seed of the most popular varieties and bought seed in large quantities. They made use of the best traditional methods of seed storage and managed to keep the purchased seed well in separate stores. At a later stage, central seed bank stores were constructed. The CSB bought selected seeds for market prices at the time of harvest and distributed seeds to the needy farmers on favourable credit terms at the time of planting. Loan takers had to pay back in cash after harvest, at a low interest rate. The idea was to recover the money that had been spent and use it for the purchase of new supplies of selected seeds for the following year. The interest was meant to cover operational costs, so that the initial capital could be maintained as a revolving fund. With the maintenance of a revolving fund, the seed banks functioned economically as credit institutions; they put the real capital, the seeds, into effective circulation. However, losses occurred in years of drought and crop failure, so the donors had to replenish the capital from time to time.
Seed quality and crop performance
During interviews with farmers, they expressed an awareness that crop performance depends on good seed selection. When asked what would happen if they stopped selecting seeds, farmers unanimously responded that the seed quality would gradually become poorer and that yields would diminish. Farmers do have the capacity to maintain the quality of the varieties. Research in the area identified selectors and non- selectors. As a group, selectors produced better in terms of both crop yield and household food security.33 Areas where farmers depend on saving their own seed,
their consciousness of the importance of seed selection practices affects crop performance positively.
Farmers’ seed selection practices*
It is difficult to give an account of who the seed selectors are and how they work. Only a few farmers carefully conduct seed selection. The most common method is
* For more background on selection practices, see Section 2.1 by Conny Almekinders and
simple mass selection, which tends to lead to the most fertile patches of the farm. Chosen plants may be vigorous and with physiologically well-developed seeds, but those plants may not be genetically different from the field average. However, some farmers practise more systematic and sometimes surprisingly sophisticated forms of mass selection. One example of a more systematic approach is known locally as
mingas, meaning ‘making king’: a system of two-year cycles of selection that is mainly
applied to wheat and barley. In the first year of the cycle, individual plants are carefully selected from all over the field. Those seeds are bulked and planted for multiplication on the most fertile land available, which is also given manure and special attention. The same field is bulk harvested without selection. The next year the seed is planted in the larger fields, selection is performed and the procedure is repeated. Another practice is not to look for the best overall plants, but for those which are vigorous relative to surrounding plants. This procedure resembles the ‘grid selection’ described earlier in Section 2.1. These more systematic and intensive forms of mass selection ensure continuous adaptation of varieties when conditions change. Seed selectors have found that their selected seeds are more responsive to the better growing conditions on terraced fields and fertilized land. These experiences confirm that traditional seed selectors can provide seeds of better quality than the average quality of local seeds, and that the benefits of such farmer-selected seeds can be extended by means of CSBs.
Using seed selectors’ skills in supporting seed supply
The seed bank activities in Tigray have convinced farmers of the importance of seed selection. An increasing number of farmers are now practising some kind of selection. In a woreda where the seed bank had been closed, farmers told us that most of them started their own seed selection when the seed bank stopped. A practice encountered in many developing countries is that although farmers do grow modern varieties, predominantly of their main staples, seed replacement rates are low. Farmers are used to recycling their seeds. Varieties may become mixed and may lose their distinctive characteristics. With inadequate capacity to solve the problem through large-scale distribution of certified seed, variety rehabilitation through support to local seed selection could be seen as an alternative. With proper instructions and support, farmers can rehabilitate ‘degraded’ varieties in just a couple of crop seasons. Farmer seed selectors are usually open to sharing knowledge and seeds with others. They are eager to learn from their own experience and through discussions with other farmers and outsiders. They are not mere custodians of culture and tradition. They are generally more open to innovation and change than non-selectors in the same communities. They could be points of connection for the introduction of new varieties, ideas and skills, and could help distribute improved seeds in the communities.
Community seed banks and genetic resources conservation
The CSBs were established in times of hardship and famine, based on local initiatives. Farmers identified the problems and possible solutions that would make use of their own genetic resources, and knowledge and skills that existed in their communities.
Professionals working for local NGOs were involved in the organization, and foreign donors provided the capital. The CSBs opened a channel through which new varieties, good quality seed, technologies and skills could be introduced.
The CSBs have contributed to the survival of landraces by keeping them viable and competitive. The genetic resource base is maintained in communities where the seed banks are operating. Since the seed banks operated independently at several local levels, the set of varieties offered differed from one seed bank to the next, adding up to very high numbers of varieties per district or zone. Various studies indicate that no genetic erosion is taking place in areas where the seed banks have been operational.
Farmers’ Rights are defined by the FAO as ‘rights arising from the past, present and future contributions of farmers in conserving, improving, and making available plant genetic resources, particularly those in the centres of origin/diversity’. CSBs provide a strong case for Farmers’ Rights, contributing to the conservation and use of landraces, as a living, dynamic and vibrant feature of current farmer activities. Those who fight for Farmers’ Rights against the strong forces of monopolization of seeds through patent systems may see an excellent case and find strong arguments for Farmers’ Rights in the activities of CSBs.
The future
Based on our experience and years of following the CSBs in Tigray, we find it important to strengthen the CSB capacity to multiply seed on farmers’ fields. We would also encourage the involvement of private investors, farmers, and support the promotion of joint ventures/cooperatives in seed production and marketing. It is essential to associate seed production and marketing with applied plant breeding and seed research. We need to document existing potentials and introduce variability for demanded traits or crops. We foresee that the CSBs will survive if they can provide the seeds that are needed and demanded, and if they can be operated as commercially viable enterprises.