Recent studies into music cognition have demonstrated connections between early experience in life and consequent beneficial effects on brain structures and cognitive functions (Hetland 2000, Ho et al 2003, Franklin et al 2008), social development (Gewertz 2003, Hallam 2000, Hille and Schupp 2013) and education of the emotions (Blacking 1987, Hoffmann-Davies 2008, Philpott 2013).
60
2.4.7.1 Cognitive function
Neuro-scientific research since the late 1990s has advanced understandings of the effects of active musical engagement on other areas of activity, for instance, the correlation between the processing systems of music and speech linking musical learning with language perception, which in turn will have a beneficial effect on verbal skills, literacy and intellectual development (Hallam 2010, pp.270, 274). Magnetic resonance imaging of the cerebral cortex has shown development of the left temporal lobe of the brain in adults who have received musical training before the age of twelve compared to non-musicians (Chan et al 1998, p.128). This is the area that primarily mediates verbal memory – the right temporal region mainly processes visual memory, which remains unaffected by musical activity. Similarly, neuro-imaging has shown a 25 percent increase in auditory processing in the left temporal region during active musical activity (Chan et al 1998, p.128; Ho et al 2003, pp.439, 447). Ho et al propose that the instrumental music training, beginning in childhood, modifies the left-brain area responsible for verbal processing and spatio-temporal reasoning, thus facilitating verbal memory. They propose in explanation that periods of intricate finger movement and the memorising of long passages of musical notes stimulate neural growth in musicians (Ho et al 203, p.447).
While these studies lend more than a correlational explanation connecting active musical activity to improved test outcomes in verbal memory and spatial reasoning, it can be argued that more investigation is necessary into unsettled issues. In contrast to studies conducted by Chan et al (1998), Hetland (2000) and Ho et al (2003), Forgeard et al did not control the research sample by SES or social demographic. Their study only included children who had persisted with instrumental tuition for
61
more than three years and the study was subject to a correlational design (Forgeard 2008, p.7). Forgeard et al acknowledge that non-causal explanations for observed cognitive development advantage in musicians, such as family dynamics and heightened motivation, are proffered as explanations for associating enhanced learning advantage with active musical training (Forgeard et al 2008, p.7). They point to parental expectations in enrolling children in instrumental music lessons compared to parents who do not choose to provide such enrichment activities. It is probable that these same parents insist on a school work-ethic and support their children’s homework as well as providing other additional extra-curricular activities. Motivational skills learnt through persisting with instrumental music training are likely to transfer to other school learning-domains.
2.4.7.2 Personal and social development
Because formal musical instrumental study involves regular purposeful practice and close involvement with the learning activity, instrumental students are likely to develop qualities of self-discipline, persistence and commitment that will have beneficial effects on their lives (Hille and Schupp 2013, p.4). A study based on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) on the effects of long-term exposure to instrumental music education, found that adolescents with musical training have more developed cognitive and non-cognitive skills, better school grades and ‘are more conscientious, open and ambitious’ (Hille and Schupp 2013, p.1). The significance of the study lies in the consistency of the findings over differing levels of socio-economic status. The study was controlled to take account of socio-economic status, personality, parental involvement in the child’s school, family background and artistic taste (p.1).
62
Young people from low or medium socio-economic backgrounds who learn musical instruments between the ages of 8 and 17 years are found to be more optimistic about future success in life. In cognitive tests, scoring more than 25 percent of standard deviation over others– this advantage shows in verbal rather than mathematical skills (Hille and Schupp 2013, p.23). Children learning instruments in group or orchestra gain social perspectives not usually experienced in classroom interactions, learning to closely and directly interact with both peers and persons in authority. Playing an instrument in social contexts gives a sense of belonging to a group in a non-competitive context, thereby raising the well-being of the individual (Hille and Schupp 2013, p.6).
Hallam (2010) suggests that an increase in cultural and social capital may partly mediate intellectual attainment, since students participating in musical activity interact more with parents and teachers; and their parents are more likely to interact with friends’ parents, in turn raising self-esteem, increasing motivation and self- efficacy (Hallam 2010, p.285). Extending instrumental tuition on a socially equitable basis has the potential to address a gap in young people’s social and cultural capital. Enhancing social skills through positive self-perception contributes to personal well- being, which in turn has beneficial effects on social cohesion in wider community.
2.4.7.3 Educating the emotions
In addition to these values [self-esteem and identity] musicing and listening extend the range of people’s expressive and impressive powers by providing us with opportunities to formulate musical expression of emotions, musical representations of people, places and things, and musical expressions of cultural-ideological meanings.
(Elliott 2005, p.10)
The cognitive and social benefits of musical engagement are well-recognised in advocating music in children’s education, usually expressed in terms of skills transfer and the development of citizenship. However, the intrinsic benefits of the musical experience itself in the formation of the young person are given less
63
emphasis by music education advocates. In an era when education is primarily focused on the preparation of young people for materially productive labour, there is a palpable imbalance between the drive to achieve numeracy and literacy and the education of the emotions through arts-participation in the school-going years. Music provides that counterbalance as it evokes the subjective world of feelings and emotions in contrast to the objectivity of the sciences (Blacking 1987, p.118; Philpott 2012, p.58).
Emotions are sociocultural constructions suffused with assigned meanings that become expressions of feelings. Closely connected to human culture, emotions, music and cultural forms in general result from human intentions towards meaning- making (Blacking 1978, p78). Participation in music provides opportunities to recognise and give form to emotions (Hoffmann-Davies 2008, p.61). For example, the synchronicity experienced during participation in music and dance ‘enhance co- operation and educate the senses’ (Blacking 1987, p.67; Trehub 2003, p.671). Language use around music-making is the language of feeling and expressiveness; and young children, easily connecting with movement and sound, are sensitive to representations such as ‘exciting’, ‘happy’ or ‘sad’ in music and movement (Hoffmann-Davies 2008, p.58).
Woodford cautions that emotion be fused with intelligence if music and music education is to be attractive to children while contributing to their development and preparation for participation in musical life (Woodford 2005, p.29). Gewertz notes a ‘growing body of research’ that suggests that a purposeful comprehensive approach to teaching social and emotional skills have the effect of both strengthening children’s enthusiasm for learning and reducing behaviour problems (Gewertz 2003, p.40). Hallam, in her survey, The Power of Music (2001) for the Performing Rights
64
Society, found that ‘people can use music in their lives to manipulate their moods, alleviate the boredom of tedious tasks, and create environments appropriate for particular social events...[and] use music to optimise their sense of well-being (Hallam 2001, p.1).
There is a compelling argument in favour of establishing the right to a broadly equitable music education provision, which would contribute to the emotional education of the mass of school pupils. Similar to literacy education in preliterate societies, there is a sense that one cannot judge the benefit until it has been experienced. The present historic class division whereby the dominant class holds a monopoly of the arts is a socio-political issue to be challenged. The assumption that musical ‘talent’ is a rare gift and that learning a musical instrument is for a ‘special class of citizen’ needs to be probed and exposed to rigorous analysis.