Para fomentar la reconciliación, a los actos a que se refiere este artículo

Introduction

The degree to which attachment is predicted by ACOA status, personal alcohol abuse, and hope has not previously been addressed. One purpose of this study was to understand more fully the influence attachment has on ACOA status, an individual’s personal alcohol abuse, and hope. Attachment relationships with an individuals’

parents/caregivers formed during infancy and childhood have a significant influence on how children turn out, including their emotional development, behavioral habits, personality, and other factors (Morris, Silk, Steinberg, Myers, & Robinson, 2007). Parental/caregiver attachments are highly important, especially given that studies have shown that the drinking behaviors of parent(s) are associated with internalizing and externalizing problems of children that may continue into adulthood (Vanassche, Sodermans, Matthijs, & Swicegood, 2014).

There is a lack of research in regard to the relationship, if any, that exists between attachment, ACOA status, personal alcohol abuse, and hope. One major challenge in understanding the experiences associated with ACOAs is their reluctance to disclose their experiences, given the negative social perceptions and stereotypes of alcoholics

(Haverfield & Theiss, 2014). ACOAs may also feel pressured to keep their parent’s alcoholism a family secret (Haverfield & Theiss, 2016).

The data for this study were collected using a cross-sectional quantitative survey design with a nonprobability convenience sampling technique, which yielded 155 participants. Four scales, CAST-6 (Hodgins, Maticka-Tyndale, Ed-Guebaly, & West, 1993); CHS-T, (Scioli, Ricci, Nyugen, & Scioli, 2011); ECR-RS (Fraley, Niedenthal,

Marks, Brumbaugh, & Vicary, 2006); and CAGE (Ewing, 1984), were administered to assess the relationship between attachment and ACOA status, personal alcohol abuse, and hope among individuals 18 years of age and older. The dependent variable studied was attachment, and the independent variables were ACOA status, personal alcohol abuse, and hope. The study followed a survey research design and provided a quantitative description of attachment as it relates to ACOA status, personal alcohol abuse, and hope of a small population.

The findings of this quantitative nonexperimental study indicated that there were significant mean differences between ACOAs and non-ACOAs on the presence of alcohol abuse, attachment, and hope, with the exception of no significant differences in avoidant attachment with a significant other. A positive and statistically significant correlation was found between ACOA status and personal alcohol abuse. A negative and statistically significant correlation was found between ACOA status and hope. Findings also revealed a positive and statistically significant zero-order correlation between ACOA status and both avoidant and anxious attachment (mother, father, and significant other). Results of this study indicated that all three alternative hypotheses were supported.

The specific goals of this research were to identify whether a difference exists between two groups (ACOA and non-ACOAs) in regard to their levels of attachment, presence of alcohol abuse, and levels of hope (Scioli, 2011) and also assess what role (if any) ACOA status plays in attachment. I also aimed to determine whether ACOA status, the presence of alcohol abuse, and hope are significant predictors of attachment

(attachment-related anxiety and avoidance) for mothers, fathers, and significant others. Many ACOAs are unaware of the residual effects of being an ACOA, and these

consequences (both positive and negative) need more understanding and clarity (Dehn, 2010), which is another reason that this study was conducted. Filling a gap in the literature by empirically researching and combining the above constructs

methodologically, my rationale in conducting this study was to analyze these variables’ influences on the experiences of ACOAs as they compare to non-ACOAs, thus allowing for a more complete profile of ACOAs that may be used as a driving force toward better serving this population as ACOAs see the issues and do something about them on a more regular and consistent basis.

Interpretation of the Findings

This study examined and compared attachment, presence of personal alcohol abuse, and a measure of hope among ACOAs and non-ACOAs.

The results revealed significant mean differences between ACOAs and non- ACOAs on the presence of alcohol abuse, attachment, and hope, with the exception of no significant differences in avoidant attachment with a significant other. This indicated that individuals who identified as ACOAs reported a higher likelihood of presence of alcohol abuse when compared to their non-ACOA peers. This supports previous research on ACOAs (e.g., Dayton, 2012; Grant et al., 2004; Shade, 2001).

The first alternative hypothesis was supported, and the findings were consistent with results reported by previous studies affirming that ACOAs are more likely to

develop alcoholism when compared to adults whose parents were not alcoholics (Anda et al., 2002; Bifulco et al., 2006; Haverfield & Theiss, 2014, 2015; World Health

significant other, all attachment relationships examined were found to have significant differences among ACOAs and non-ACOAs.

Attachment theory holds that the quality of attachment to one’s parents, which develops in infancy, affects an individual’s ability to form healthy attachments in adulthood (Lander, Howsare, & Byrne, 2013), which is supported and reflected in the results of this study, as ACOAs reported more avoidant and anxious attachments to their mothers and fathers and anxious attachment with their significant other. As previously noted, no studies have examined the relationship between ACOA status and hope; thus, the results of this study offer a significant contribution, as ACOAs were found to have lower levels of hope when compared to non-ACOAs.

The second alternative hypothesis was supported, and the findings revealed that the negative correlation between ACOA status and hope was strong, indicating that ACOAs reported a lower level of hope when compared to non-ACOAs. To date, there has been no previous research on the relationship between ACOA status and hope. Haverfield and Theiss (2014) found that some ACOA participants described having a lack of hope and/or difficulty in having hope, which is consistent with this study’s findings.

Attachment theory posits that secure individuals are more hopeful, and thus secure attachment allows individuals to view their lives in a more positive light and increase their overall well-being (Simmons, Gooty, Nelson, & Little, 2009). Research suggests that hope can also act as a buffer against psychological disorders (Arnau, Rosen, Finch, Rhudy, & Fortunato, 2007). The finding that ACOAs have a decreased level of

hope is significant, represents a new contribution to the understanding of the experiences of ACOAs, and supports the alternative hypothesis.

The third alternative hypothesis was also supported and revealed several

significant correlations, which is consistent with previous studies (Haverfield & Theiss, 2014, 2015; Kearns-Bodkin & Leonard, 2008) in regard to ACOA status, the presence of alcohol abuse, and hope as significant predictors of attachment (attachment-related anxiety and avoidance) for mother, father, and romantic partner. Specifically, ACOA status had a significant correlation with both avoidant and anxious attachment with mother, and anxious attachment with father and significant other, and hope had a significant correlation with both avoidant and anxious attachment with mother, father, and significant other.

These results are consistent with studies that have emphasized that ACOAs are at an increased risk for early onset of drinking and alcoholism (Braitman et al., 2009; Chassin, Pitts, & Prost, 2002; Yau et al., 2012). Findings are also consistent with attachment style being predictive of an individual’s levels of hope (Blake et al., 2014; Snyder, 1994) and further emphasize the importance of the role that the development of healthy attachment relationships during infancy/childhood plays in the formation of adult relationships.

Limitations of the Study

Although the results of this study could significantly contribute to what is known about ACOAs, their experiences, and the psychological symptoms associated with growing up in the home of an alcoholic (Scharff et al., 2004; Harter, 2000; Grant et al., 2004; Kelley et al., 2005), there are a number of limitations to be considered. One

limitation of this study had to do with generalizability, particularly the number of participants in each group. Generalizability is a limitation inherent in any convenience sample (Ozdemir, St. Louis, & Topbas, 2011). The data revealed that 67% (n = 104) of participants were non-ACOAs and 33% (n = 51) were ACOAs.

While each group had a sufficient number of participants to warrant further analyses, a higher participation rate may have provided more statistical power and allowed for more generalizability. The statistical power was sufficient in this study to yield significant results and minimize the potential for Type I or Type II errors (Cohen, 1988; Stevens, 2002). Generalizability for this study should be limited to females only, because of the small representation of males (Kukull & Ganguli, 2012).

Another limitation of this study involved gathering data through self-report measures. Self-report measures have been proven reliable and valid (Johnson & Turner, 2003); however, self-reported data can rarely be independently verified. Self-reported data may also contain sources of biases, including selective memory, social desirability bias, recall bias, attribution (attributing positive events and outcomes to one’s own agency, but attributing negative events and outcomes to external forces), exaggeration, and telescoping (recalling events that occurred at one time as if they occurred at another time; Brutus, Aguinis, & Wassmer, 2013).

A final limitation of this study relates to the use of a cross-sectional approach. A cross-sectional approach is limited to one point in time, cannot be used to analyze behavior over a period of time, and provides a snapshot of a sample of a population at a single point in time (Carlson & Morrison, 2009; Weerasekera, n.d.). A lower response rate may also make the study susceptible to bias and misclassification due to recall bias.

One possible confound related to recall bias and the cross-sectional approach is participant reactivity based on recalling only a specific or specific past events

(Hawkshead & Krousel-Wood, 2007; Paulhus & Vazire, 2007). A final limitation with this type of study, however, is differentiating and determining cause and effect (Mann, 2003).

Recommendations

The results of this study are particularly novel and add to a little-researched field; thus, there are still many gaps in the knowledge base that need to be filled. However, based on these results, the next steps for future research into the area of attachment as it relates to ACOA status, presence of personal alcohol abuse, and hope are to build a stronger evidence base. It would be beneficial to repeat this study on a larger scale.

Furthermore, an understanding of how attachment may influence other aspects of individuals’ overall psychological well-being is needed, specifically among ACOAs. Variables such as information about individuals’ extended family and codependency may be more informative, and researchers in future studies should consider examining such variables. Previous research has frequently found that codependency is characteristic of ACOAs’ relationships (Young & Timko, 2015).

Results indicated that the hypotheses of this study were supported, with the exception of no mean differences found between ACOAs and non-ACOAs in regard to avoidant attachment with a significant other. In future research, the study should be set up to examine attachment relationships on a deeper, more involved level in order to provide more insight as to why the first hypothesis was not fully supported. Finally, it would also

be beneficial to employ an involved qualitative component assessing the lived

experiences of ACOAs, which could uncover confounding variables among ACOAs. Looking ahead, it will be important for mental health professionals, teachers, and supportive caregivers/figures to allow ACOAs to have a voice and offer validation when they are ready and willing to share their experiences and feelings. This is related to representation of subgroups effected by ACOA and ACOA-related issues. By using longitudinal and other types of sampling, problems such as the low representation of males could also be addressed (Twisk, 2013).

Social Change Implications

ACOAs have long been identified as having many difficulties compared to their non-ACOA peers. ACOAs are characterized as experiencing poor interpersonal

relationships and insecure attachments, difficulty trusting others, increased likelihood of personal alcoholism, and other negative symptoms (Anda et al., 2002; Hall & Webster, 2002; Haverfield & Theiss, 2014). The findings of this study may be used in a number of ways on all levels, including the individual, family system, neighborhood, organizational, national, and global levels.

More specifically, clinicians and other professionals working with ACOAs may use the results of this study to further tailor their approach and develop more specialized treatments to address the negative aspects of growing up in an alcoholic environment (Vaught, Wittman, & O’Brien, 2013). For clinicians and other professionals, there is a lack of clear understanding, especially because most clients present as dually diagnosed; the results of this study provide clinicians and professionals with more understanding and ammunition. Research has indicated prevention and intervention as possible remedies to

the problems that ACOAs face. Intervention strategies include group programs, which may help reduce feelings of isolation, shame, and guilt. Effective prevention at an early stage, during childhood, is possible if children (who have been identified as at risk or children of alcoholism) are provided with a safe, supportive environment (by teachers, school counselors, nonalcoholic parents, coaches, etc.) where they learn to express feelings (Dehn, 2010).

When little or no support is available to children during their years of

development and growth, along with the absence of validation for their emotions and feelings, they are less likely to develop a true sense of self (Middelton-Moz & Dwinell, 2010). The results of this study may help those identifying as ACOAs and those who have experienced other adverse childhood events to find a sense of meaning and deeper understanding in their lives, along with the sense that they are not alone. Results may also be used to expand upon attachment and hope theories, and what is known about the relationship that exists between these constructs as they apply to ACOAs.

The findings of this study could be used to address the social problem and growing epidemic of alcoholism. Alcoholism is a highly stigmatized disease that affects not only those dependent on alcohol, but also family members, friends, and all those close to such individuals. Although ACOAs have little to no control over the presence and severity of their parents’ dependency and are likely unaware of its residual effects, finding ways to reframe the illness is crucial in the promotion of more positive outcomes. With an enhanced understanding of the experiences of ACOAs, clinicians and other professionals may contribute to more fully developed treatments for ACOAs. The

but also the population as a whole, will allow for less stigma. A decrease in stigma may encourage more ACOAs to speak up and reach out to others, thus improving the

likelihood of overcoming the hardships associated with having an alcoholic parent (Haverfield & Theiss, 2015).

The social change implications of this study relate to its potential to offer mental health professionals a better understanding of the experiences of ACOAs, so that they might identify and assist them on entering into treatment. The psychological well-being of ACOAs, who have already experienced the negative consequences of growing up in an alcoholic environment (Dayton, 2009), can be better served through changes and more specialized treatments. The ability to specialize treatment to address underlying aspects of attachment, personal alcohol abuse, and hope would benefit these individuals and those around them. The individuals would benefit from better, more tailored treatment that allows them to become healthier. In turn, this would lead to them becoming more productive members of their communities and society as a whole. In addition, results from this study may provide individuals with insight and the possibility of understanding and improving their relationship satisfaction.

Conclusion

Alcoholism affects families and children in every area of the development. Each member of a family is uniquely affected by the presence of alcoholism, and adults who grew up in an environment where alcoholism was present during their childhood are at an increased risk of developing alcohol abuse themselves, in addition to experiencing

negative impacts on emotional and behavioral patterns (Lander, Howsare, & Byrne, 2013). The results of this study were consistent with prior research and contributed to the

knowledge base by providing new information in regard to what is known about the experiences of ACOAs.

Despite its limitations, this study provides important and new insight into the impact of parental alcoholism on the presence of alcohol abuse, attachment, and hope. The findings of this study can be used by mental health professionals to intervene and change the trajectory of these negative consequences at many junctions. The general public can benefit from these findings as well, in that they place emphasis on the understanding that alcoholism is a disease. Such understanding is likely to help reduce the stigma surrounding alcohol-dependent individuals and their families (Haverfield & Theiss, 2015).

Of particular importance, the current findings suggest that children raised by alcoholic parents are likely to carry the problematic effects of their upbringing into adulthood. The current findings suggest that the children of alcoholics may likely be more affected than the alcoholics themselves. By considering children when addressing the effects of alcoholism, even if only from an educational or preventative perspective, the knowledge base can be broadened across the board in order to address the increasing number of individuals negatively affected by alcoholism.

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