Implicaciones Indirectas de la pandemia

This chapter examined the issue of gender equality in the governing bodies of Italian sport, starting from the analysis of the Italian regulatory system, gender dynamics in Italian sport and finally measuring the female presence at the top of the FSN/FSPs.

In Italy, in recent years, the presence of women in sports has grown. In 2017, the share of women registered athletes reached its all-time high: 28.2% against 71.8% of male registered athletes. The interest in sports by women athletes is constantly increasing, as shown by the trend of the last five years: one percentage point more than in 2016, 4 percentage points more than the 24% estimated in 2013¹⁵.

Also with regards to the sporting successes, the Italian women athletes conquer medals and give prestige to the country. 2018 has been an amazing year for women in Italian sport. Think of the gold in the 3x3 World Basketball Championships in Manila, the triumph of Flavia Severin as the new European boxing champion in the +81 kg cate-gory, the Azzurre at the World Cup, the successes during the PyeongChang Winter Games, the conquest by Federica Pellegrini of her fiftieth international medal in swimming.

When it comes, however, to win the seats at the top of Italian sport, women are disadvantaged with only 14% of directors and 13% of female federal secretaries in the FSN. This double speed is found not only in Italy but it is also highlighted in all the international studies on the issue of gender equality in the governance of sport (Henry & Rob-inson, 2010; Adriaanse & Schofield, 2014). Moreover, the Italian female athletes are discriminated on the economic level and are not recognized as professionals in the sport activity.

In Italy, this double speed is not only found between sports successes and positions of power in sport but also

15 Source: CONI Servizi, I numeri dello sport 2017, December 2018. . https://www.CONI.it/it/CONI/i-numeri-dello-sport.html (accessed Decem-ber 2, 2018).

between the latter and positions of power in all other areas of public life in the country. According to the Gender Equality Index (Eige, 2017), Italy is 13th out of the 28 countries of the European Union as regards the presence of women in positions of power in the overall political, economic and social life of the country while it is twenty-third in terms of presence female in positions of power in the sports sector only. This means that Italian sport has not kept pace with other sectors of public life in the country in terms of gender equality as it is also confirmed by the late in-troduction of gender quotas in FSN Boards of Directors.

It should also be noted that, where present, in FSN/FSPs’ Board of Directors the women rarely reach a “critical mass” that can significantly affect the FSN decisions. The concept of critical mass was introduced by Kanter (1977) in the literature on gender diversity on company boards. Subsequent studies have then quantified the concept by highlighting that one or two women run the risk of being identified only as a symbol of female participation rather than as individuals per se while with the presence of three or more women it is reached that critical mass that allows women to have a significant impact on that decision-making body and on that organization (Konrad, Kramer &

Erkut, 2008; Torchia, Calabrò & Huse, 2011). Only 4 out of 53 Federations (7.5%) have a number of women equal or above 3 in their Boards of Directors.

The recent introduction of gender quotas in the Italian federal boards will increase the number of women in the latter as it has already happened in other fields where they were more promptly introduced. Before the introduction of mandatory quotas on the boards of companies listed on the stock exchange in 2011, and in companies belonging to the public administration in 2013, in Italy the percentage of women in managerial positions was terribly low in both the public and private sectors. Subsequently, the situation has improved considerably, so much so that it is pre-cisely in the organizations affected by the introduction of gender quotas that Italy has seen the greatest advancement of the female position and that, as noted by the 2017 Gender Equality Index (Eige, 2017), record the greatest prog-ress among the member countries of the European Union.

It is also necessary to be aware, however, that gender quotas are only the first step of a path that is expected to be long. The quotas increase the numerical presence of women in federal boards of directors, but they do not guar-antee equal participation by women and men in the exercise of power in strategic decisions and in the allocation of resources (Konrad, Kramer & Erkut, 2008). The consistent presence of women in athlete quota in the Italian federal boards of directors, only formally equivalent to the members in club quota, shows that women are required greater tenacity and competence than men to assert themselves. Much more needs to be done to make gender equality a real value for the organization, to create a true team spirit between men and women and to ensure that women win more important roles within the Italian federal Boards of Directors.

6. References

Adriaanse, J. A. (2016). Gender diversity in the governance of sport associations: The Sydney Scoreboard Global Index of participation. Journal of Business Ethics, 137 (1), 149–160.

Adriaanse, J. A. (2018). Gender diversity in the governance of sport associations: The Sydney Scoreboard Global In-dex Europe in world perspective: the Sydney Scoreboard Global InIn-dex for women in sport leadership, in Elling, A., Hovden, J., & Knoppers, A., Gender Diversity in European Sport Governance (Routledge Research in Sport,

Culture and Society) Taylor and Francis.

Adriaanse, J., & Claringbould, I. (2016). Gender equality in sport leadership: From the Brighton Declaration to the Sydney Scoreboard. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 51 (5), 547–566.

Adriaanse, J., & Schofield, T. (2014). The Impact of Gender Quotas on Gender Equality in Sport Governance. Jour-nal of Sport Management, 28, 485-497.

Alvisi C. (2000) Autonomia privata e autodisciplina sportiva. Il CONI e la regolamentazione dello sport, Giuffrè, Milan.

Canella M., Giuntini S., Granata I. (2019). Donna e sport, FrancoAngeli, Milan.

Caprioli R. (1997). L’autonomia normativa delle federazioni sportive nazionali nel diritto privato, Naples.

Cassese S. (1979). Sulla natura giuridica delle federazioni sportive e sull’applicazione ad esse della disciplina del para-stato, in Rivista di diritto sportivo.

Cinquepalmi M. (2016). Dispari. Storie di sport, media e discriminazioni di genere, Informant, 2016.

Claringbould, I., & Van Liere M.(2019). The Netherlands: transformation but still a great deal to be done, in Elling, A., Hovden, J., & Knoppers, A., Gender Diversity in European Sport Governance (Routledge Research in Sport, Culture and Society) Taylor and Francis.

Claringbould, I., & Knoppers, A. (2007). Finding a ‘normal’ woman: Selection processes for board membership. Sex Roles, 56 (7–8),

Claringbould, I., & Knoppers, A. (2008). Doing and undoing gender in sport governance. Sex Roles, 58 (1–2), 81–92.

Claringbould, I., & Knoppers, A. (2012). Paradoxical practices of gender in sport-related organizations. Journal of Sport Management, 26 (5), 404–416.

Clarizia A. (1983). La natura giuridica delle federazioni sportive anche alla luce della legge del 23 marzo 1981 n. 91, in Rivista di diritto sportivo.

Colantuoni L. (2009). Diritto sportivo, Giappichelli, Turin.

CONI Servizi (2018). I numeri dello sport 2017, December.

Custureri S. (2015). La natura giuridica delle federazioni sportive, enti pubblici o associazioni di diritto privato? In Rivista di Diritto Amministrativo, n. 3-4.

Di Nella L. (2000). Le federazioni sportive nazionali dopo la riforma,in Rivista di diritto sportivo.

Eige, Gender Equality Index 2017: Measuring gender equality in the European Union 2005-2015 – Report, https://eige.europa.eu/rdc/eige-publications/gender-equality-index-2017-measuring-gender-equality-euro-pean-union-2005-2015-report.

Elling, A., Hovden, J., & Knoppers, A. (2019). Gender Diversity in European Sport Governance (Routledge Re-search in Sport, Culture and Society) Taylor and Francis.

Fasting K. & Sisjord M., (2019). Norway: gender, governance and the impact of quota regulations in Elling, A., Hov-den, J., & Knoppers, A., Gender Diversity in European Sport Governance (Routledge Research in Sport, Culture and Society) Taylor and Francis.

Fink, J. S. (2016). Hiding in plain sight: The embedded nature of sexism in sport. Journal of Sport Management, 30 (1), 1–7.

Fracchia F. (1999), item Sport, in Digesto discipline pubblicistiche, vol. XIV, Turin.

Frascaroli R. (1990). item Sport, (Dir. pubbl. e priv.), vol. XLIII, in Enciclopedia del diritto.

Hartmann-Tews I. (2019). A long way to gender equity and equality in sport governance, in Elling, A., Hovden, J.,

& Knoppers, A., Gender Diversity in European Sport Governance (Routledge Research in Sport, Culture and Society) Taylor and Francis.

Hedenborg S., & Norberg J.R. (2019). Sweden: a gender perspective on sport governance, in Elling, A., Hovden, J.,

& Knoppers, A., Gender Diversity in European Sport Governance (Routledge Research in Sport, Culture and Society) Taylor and Francis.

Henry, I., & Robinson, L. (2010). Gender equity and leadership in Olympic bodies. Loughborough, UK: Centre for Olympic Studies and Research, Loughborough University and International Olympic Committee.

Hovden, J. (2000). ‘Heavyweight’ men and younger women? The gendering of selection processes in Norwegian sport organizations. NORA: Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research, 8, 17–32.

Hovden, J. (2006). The gender order as a policy issue in sport: A study of Norwegian sports organizations. Nordic Journal of Women’s Studies, 14 (1), 41–53.

Hovden, J. (2010). Female top leaders-prisoners of gender? The gendering of leadership discourses in Norwegian sports organizations. International Journal of Sport Policy, 2 (2), 189–203.

Hovden, J. (2012). Discourses and strategies for the inclusion of women in sport: The case of Norway. Sport in So-ciety, 15 (3), 287–301.

Kanter, R.M. (1977). Men and women o f the corporation. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Konrad, A.M., Kramer, V., & Erkut, S. (2008). Critical mass: The impact of three or more women on corporate boards. Organizational Dynamics, 37, 145-164. doi: 10.1016/j. orgdyn.2008.02.005

Luiso F. (1975). La giustizia sportiva, Milan.

Maltoni A. (2005). Il conferimento di potestà pubbliche ai privati, Giappichelli, Turin.

Morbidelli G. (1993). Gli Enti dell’ordinamento sportivo, in Diritto amminnistrativo.

Napolitano G. (2006). item Sport, in Dizionario di diritto pubblico, diretto da S. Cassese, vol. VI, Milan.

Ottesen, L., Skirstad, B., Pfister, G., & Habermann, U. (2010). Gender relations in Scandinavian sport organiza-tions: A comparison of the situation and the policies in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Sport in Society, 13 (4), 657–675.

Pavani F. (2010). Le federazioni sportive,in Giurisprudenza italiana.

Pfister, G., & Radtke, S. (2009). Sport, women, and leadership: Results of a project on executives in German sports organizations. European Journal of Sport Science, 9 (4), 229–243.

Quaranta A. (1986). Sulla natura giuridica delle federazioni sportive nazionali, in Rivista di diritto sportivo.

Rossi G. (1979). Enti pubblici associativi: aspetti del rapporto fra gruppi sociali e pubblico potere, Naples.

Sanino M. - Verde F. (2002), Il diritto sportivo, IV ed., Cedam.

Sensale M. (1984). La legge 23 marzo 1981, n. 91 e la natura giuridica delle federazioni sportive, in Rivista di diritto sportivo.

Sisjord, M. K., Fasting, K., & Sand, T. S. (2017). The impact of gender quotas in leadership in Norwegian organised sport. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 9 (3), 505–519.

Terjesen, S., Sealy R. (2016). Board Gender Quotas: Exploring Ethical Tensions From A Multi-Theoretical Perspec-tive.Business Ethics Quaterly, 26(1), 23–65.

Theberge, N. (1984). Some evidence on the existence of a sexual double standard in mobility to leadership positions in sport. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 19 (2), 185–197.

Torchia, M., Calabro, A., & Huse, M. (2011). Women direc tors on corporate boards: From tokenism to critical mass.

Journal of Business Ethics, 102, 299-317. doi:10.1007/ s 10551-011-0815-z

Trivellato L. (1991). Considerazioni sulla natura giuridica delle federazioni sportive, in Diritto e società.

Zoppi G. (2012). Diritto sportivo, Rome.

Constitution of the Italian Republic Law n.91 of 23 May 1981

Legislative Decree n. 242 of 1999 “Reorganization of the Italian National Olympic Committee”.

Code of equal opportunities for men and women (Legislative Decree No. 198 of 2006) Law n. 120 of 12 July 2011

CONI, Code of Sport Behavior Deliberated by the National Council in the meeting of 30 October 2012.

Presidential Decree n. 251 of 30 November 2012 Legislative Decree n. 254 of 30 December 2016 Law n. 8 11 January 2018.

Law n. 205 of 27 December 2017 - Budget Law 2018.

Decree of the President of the Council of Ministers 28 February 2018 - Allocation of the resources of the Single Fund to support the strengthening of the Italian sports movement.

Self-regulation code of Italian listed companies. Modified in July 2018. https://www.borsaitaliana.it/borsaitaliana/

regolamenti/corporategovernance/corporategovernance.htm

Statute of the CONI, modified by the National Council on August 1, 2018 with resolution no. 1611 Approved with DCPM of 24 October 2018.

CONI, Fundamental principles of the statutes of the national sports federations, of the associated sports disciplines, Approved with resolution of the National Council n. 1613 of September 4, 2018 Presidential Decree Council of Ministers UPS of September 14, 2018.

Statute of the CIP, adopted by the specially appointed commissioner with the Decree of 26 June 2017.

Emília Fernandes