The neuroscientist Le Doux (2002) states that on an evolutionary timescale, the feeling part of the brain located in the limbic system, has an evolutionary pedigree dating back to the time when mammals first appeared, whereas the cognitive facilities of the human neocortex are more newly evolved. Research seems to show that the mammalian brain appears most adaptive during the early postnatal period and there is evidence to show that complex and challenging environments produce new and dense synapses in the cortex, which are then pruned or eliminated, depending on the nature of the stimulation and needs within the environment (Greenough & Black, 1992). This indicates the critical role of nervous system activity and sensory stimulation (environmental interaction), for the fine tuning of the brain and for normal development to occur. Scientists like Le Doux (2002), now know that the brain can create new circuitry and improve the density of the synapses throughout life, and this provides confirmation of the need to provide a rich and stimulating environment for the learner, with positive interactions with significant others – especially for the learner with AD/HD. An important aspect to consider is the view that emotions do not function independently of our bodies, unlike the cognitive processes of our brain, and therefore most emotions involve a bodily response (Damasio, 1994). If learners with AD/HD can be helped to better understand their bodily responses to emotions, in short to become more emotionally self aware, as well as how to manage these responses appropriately, this may help to ameliorate the symptoms and behaviour of AD/HD that they display. In fact, ongoing brain research suggests that increased connectivity between the amygdala, which is the seat of emotional behaviour, and the cortex, which controls more cognitive thought patterns, could restore much of the harmony and balance between reason and emotion (Morris & Casey, 2005).
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Figure 3.1 Brain imaging techniques used in brain research.
The first interactive relationship that develops for the human brain is that between the baby and the primary caregiver, and is known as the attachment bond. Brain imaging resources such as those shown in Figure 3.1, have allowed scientists to understand how experience affects the flow and function of information within the brain, and has shown that the experience that has the most influence on the developing brain is that which is acquired in intimate relationships (Siegel, 2001; Fonagy, Gergely & Target, 2007). The early attachment bond plays a dominant role in the development of the brain and establishes the basis for the child’s relationships with others, security in exploring the world, resilience to stress, and the ability to balance emotions and make sense of the inner and outer world (Siegel, 2001; 2007). It is interesting to note that the learner with AD/HD typically experiences difficulty relating to others, often displays feelings of insecurity and stress, demonstrates a poor ability to balance his emotions and make sense of the world around him.
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Table 3.1 The link between AD/HD and Attachment Disorder.
Brain altering commun- ication is triggered by deeply felt emotions that shape the brain’s mental circuits which are responsible for memory,
emotion and self- awareness.
Children who
experience early and sustained
neglect as well as physical, emotional or sexual abuse, are likely to experience problems with attachment and are often misdiagnosed with AD/HD.
Because learners with AD/HD often display many similar symptoms to the child with
attachment disorder, some researchers refer to AD/HD as
attachment deficit disorder instead.
In the case of the learner with AD/HD, early attachment and sensory stimulation may not have occurred, thus interfering with the emotional developm- ent of the brain resulting in lowered social and emotional intelligence.
Siegel, 2001; Shore, 1994.
Brady, 2003. Siegel, 2001; Shore, 1994.
Learners with AD/HD often experience difficulties with impulsivity, planning, attention, rational and well thought out decision making, self esteem and social interactions. Emotions are crucial for the decision making process and this is strongly based on feelings, whilst social intelligence, the ability to understand and feel other people’s feelings and thoughts, as well as to be able to interact on a non-verbal level, shapes the outcome of social interactions – in fact care about others is crucial for human beings to connect effectively with their world (Goleman, 2006; Vanhatalo, 2007). The ability to care for others develops from the initial relationships that children develop with their primary caregivers during the attachment phase. The evolutionary role of the attachment relationship extends beyond the mere need to provide protection for the human infant, to the facilitation of the appropriate organization of the brain processes for the implementation of social cognition, and to aid in preparing the individual for the collaborative and cooperative existence with others for which the brain was designed (Fonagy et al. 2007). If this has not occurred during the development of the attachment relationship, as may be seen in the symptoms and behaviour of many learners with AD/HD, the fact that new circuitries can be created in the brain throughout life is of particular importance in exposing these learners to alternative thinking strategies in the context of emotion, in an attempt to bridge this gap and to strengthen and build new neural connections in the emotions centres.
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Research now shows that the majority of brain structures implicated in emotion, motivation and social cognition, such as the cortical and subcortical components of the prefrontal cortex, are also implicated in the processing of emotions, which may indicate a critical set of relations between feeling and thought, extending into the concept that the basis of disorders in emotion occur in the same neural systems (Davidson, 2004; Fonagy et al., 2007; Grady & Keightley, 2002). Davidson (2004) adds that the prefrontal cortex is closely connected with affect- guided decision making, which is particularly pertinent for the learner with AD/HD, who often experiences difficulty within this area. In agreement with the theory that early environmental experiences shape aspects of prefrontal function, animal data explicitly manipulating early environment, results in both structural and functional asymmetric differences in the prefrontal cortex. The learner with AD/HD experiences many of the symptoms and behaviours of this disorder in terms of an emotional overtone, and it is hoped that neural circuitry can be supported and increased if the learner is exposed to a program which targets emotions.