Modificación de leyes de corte y sus posibles implicancias en las reservas

The results of the model estimates for the probability of increasing the labour supply are presented in table 6.5. The hourly wage affects the probability of increasing labour supply positively. This means that employees in high positions, and therefore earning a high wage, are better able to increase their labour supply. For male and female employees, having a permanent contract reduces the prob- ability of increasing labour supply. It must be noted, however, that most male workers on permanent contracts already work full time, and that, in this case, it is almost impossible to increase the number of contractual working hours. Mothers of young children are less likely to increase their labour supply, supposedly because of the caring activities involved.

As in the previous model, labour demand factors do affect male labour supply, but have little effect on female labour supply. Males working in non- commercial services and in the education sector are more likely to increase their labour supply. Both males and females are more likely to increase their hours when working in firms of average size (11–99 employees).

Again, working hours preferences are found to be a strong determinant of working time changes: male and female employees with a preference for longer working weeks are more likely to increase their working hours than employees with- out such preferences. For males, this association between their preferences and working time changes has changed after the introduction of the Adjustment of Working Hours Act: after the introduction of the Act male employees with a pref- erence for working more hours are less likely to actually change their hours. However, it is possible that this effect is due to changes in the questionnaire (see section 6.4). To what extent are increases in the number of hours worked associated with job mobility? Both male and female employees are more likely to change working hours when changing employers. In addition, female employees are also more likely to increase working hours when changing jobs with the same employer. Thus we can deduce that hours restrictions do play a role, especially for female employees. Turning to the effect of the Adjustment of Working Hours Act, if the upward adjustment of working hours were less associated with job mobility in the post-Act period, we would expect in our model estimates a significant negative sign for the cross-term between job mobility and the post-Act time dummy 2000–2002. The empirical results are mixed. For female employees we can conclude that the association between mobility and working hours increases has not changed after the introduction of the Adjustment of Working Hours Act. However, for males we find that they are less likely to change job in order to increase working hours after the year 2000 than they were in the period prior to the introduction of the Act. Again it is possible that this effect is due to a different phrasing of the relevant questions (see section 6.4).

Table 6.5 Parameters for the probability of working more hours between t and t + 2, male and female workers, 1986–2002

Males Females

Individual and household characteristics

Age −0.025 0.0712

Age squared (/100) 0.009 −0.1133

Educational level (ref: primary school or lower)

Lower secondary −0.027 −0.068

Higher secondary −0.136 −0.064

Higher education −0.111 0.005

University −0.24 −0.3651

Household type (ref: couple without child)

Couple with child −0.023 −0.3533

Divorced/widowed 0.189 0.158

Single 0.122 0.2261

Birth of a child 0.011 −0.218

Number of hours worked by partner 0.002 −0.003

Job characteristics

Ln(hourly wage) 0.4003 _0.3113

Permanent contract −0.3073 −_0.3913

Manager −0.12 −0.2253

Heavy work 0.071 −0.047

Dissatisfied with work 0.08 0.1731

Part-time job 1.6013 _1.2603

Overtime work 0.045 0.043

Labour demand factors

Sector (ref: commerce, catering, transport)

Industry or agriculture 0.125 0.088

Financial business services −0.047 −0.142

Other services 0.4493 _0.135

Public sector 0.006 0.008

Education 0.5273 _0.109

Healthcare 0.04 −0.008

Firm size: (ref: 100 or more employees)

11–99 employees 0.174 0.2303

1–10 employees 0.16 0.129

Time (ref: 1992–2000)

1986–1992 0.2992 _0.143

6.7

CONCLUSION

Our main focus in this chapter has been on the adjustment of working hours to workers’ preferences, which fits well within the concept of “decent working time” developed by the ILO (Messenger, ed., 2004). We have questioned whether or not legislation can improve this adjustment process and henceforth contribute to more decent working times. We have shown that a quarter of Dutch employees are dissatisfied with the number of hours they currently work. They would prefer to work either more or fewer hours. However, from our analyses of the OSA Labour Supply Panel it turns out that, even in the Dutch part-time economy, only a small portion of employees that would like to adjust working hours is actually doing so. Between 1986 and 2002, only 15 to 27 per cent of employees with a desire to work fewer hours, and 22 to 35 per cent of employees with a desire to work more hours, have adjusted their working hours accordingly two years later. One of the main conclusions of this chapter is that it is easier to realize an upward adjustment of working

Job mobility

Change of employer 0.7083 _1.0723

Within-firm mobility 0.226 0.8203

Time and job mobility

Change of employer * 1986–1992 -0.3642 _-0.2781 Change of employer * 2000–2002 -0.5152 _-0.122 Within-firm mobility * 1986–1992 -0.091 -0.006

Within-firm mobility * 2000–2002 -0.343 0.107

Preferences

Prefers fewer hours -0.008 -0.26

Prefers more hours 0.7223 _0.6233

Preferences and time

Prefers fewer hours * 1986–1992 0.212 0.06

Prefers fewer hours * 2000–2002 0.104 0.149

Prefers more hours * 1986–1992 0.009 0.044

Prefers more hours * 2000–2002 -0.9422 _-0.127 Selection (lambda)

for selection equation, see Table 6A.1 in Appendix 6.2 0.682 1.3672

Constant term -3.1413 _-4.3923

N= 6 699 3 472

Pseudo-R2 _{0.3796 0.263}

Notes: 1_{Significant at 10%;} 2_{significant at 5%;} 3_{significant at 1%; robust estimator of variance for clustered data.}

hours than it is to realize a downward adjustment. We also found large differences between male and female workers. Male employees show more stable working hours patterns, whereas women show more flexible patterns.

Although it is possible to adjust working hours within the same job and with the same employer, our analyses show that changes in working hours often coincide with job mobility, be it changes of position with the same employer or a change of employer. Employees who report that their job or their employer does not allow for changes in working hours are indeed not only less likely to adapt their working hours in accordance with their prefer- ences but also more likely to change jobs. With the introduction of the Adjustment of Working Hours Act in 2000, Dutch policy-makers were expect- ing to smooth away such labour demand constraints. We therefore expected adjustments in working hours to be realized less often by means of job mobility after its introduction. However, we found no significant effect. In addition, we did not find the expected result that it should be easier for employees who are dissatisfied with their working hours to change their hours after the introduction of the Act.