Obtención y preprocesado de los datos

MacCannell (1976) has defined the destination as “a tourist attraction is an empirical relationship between a tourist, site and a market”(p.41). He added about its organization and the content that “the touristic value of a modern community lies in the way it organizes social, historical, cultural and natural elements into a steam of impression” (p.48). Further, “Distinctive local attraction contains (just behind, beside or embedded in the parts presented to the tourists) working offices, shops, services and facilities: often an entire urban structure is operating behind its touristic front”

(p.50). Yet again, MacCannell (1976) states: “Functioning establishments figure prominently as tourist attractions. Commercial, industrial and business establishments are also basic features of social regions, or they are first among the elements from which regions are composed” (p.51). He does not identify geographical boundaries, but the content of the destination is described as an attraction of a social and a spatial process. This process is described as being structuralistic, determined by society, not as a result of the tourist’s individual behaviour.

Rodman (1992) stresses that: “Places come into being through practice, not just narratives” (p.642). These practical tourist networks constitute an assemblage of objects, places and people that are bound into the relationship. He says as a kind of conclusion on this argument: “An identical of the various spatial networks through which places become diversely constituted advances a progressive notion where places are conceived as ‘processes’ rather than ‘essences’ ” (p.642). Places have multiple identities, are situated points at which a variety of activities occur and a diverse range of people pass through on different routes (Hazbun, 2004; Taji, 2005).

Meethan (2001) illustrates that “Yet the important point here is not so much the physical patterns or typologies of spatial development that can be identified, that is treating space as an abstract and neutral category, but the way in which these spatial patterns interrelate with socio-cultural values and perceptions” (p.16) and, later on:

“The resort areas developed as a consequence of modernity, and are linked to the

process of urbanization and industrialisation, and the creation of both mass markets and consumption” (p. 17). As a result, some researchers see the tourist space as a social production that the destination and a tourism space as a space for consumption, which contains all attractions and services related to tourist demands (Baerenholdt and Framke, 2000; Hazbun, 2004; Taji, 2005).

According to Agarwal (1992), tourist destination is defined as “a mosaic of a variety of products with different lifecycle” (p.113). In 1998 Agues and Goncalves added that the destination is differentiated from others by its historical, ethnographic and physical features. Later on, Agues and Goncalves (1998) state that “a destination must be able to develop one or more of its tourism attractions such as culture, sun and beach, and it would then allow itself to be considered a composite product” (p.31) . Thus, a destination can always differentiate itself by developing in terms of promoting and offering a variety of services. In addition, the diversification of products/services enables a destination to develop its tourism industry and attract new markets (Jensen, 2001; Lubbe, 2003; Hazbun, 2004; Taji, 2005).

As such, Framke (1999) found the only local cooperation regarding the production of commercial actor’s single product at non-urbanized places (as in Destination Jamesburg), while almost all services in connection with maintaining the production apparatus are placed at the local site. However, if the actor needs material inputs for own production, then this input will usually come from outside the destination (Baerenholdt and Framke, 2000; Baerenholdt, 2001; Meethan, 2001; Jensen, 2001;

Lubbe, 2003; Hazbun, 2004; Taji, 2005).

4.2.2 Concept of Destination

Following the unexpected success of applying the destination concept in the industrial sector, academicians began to analyse the marketing theories in relation to the tourists’ needs and wants in the industrial field and determine the importance of the destination concept to their demands through the marketing services in terms of the concept of tourism as it applies to tourists (Butler, 1980; Smith, 1988; Chon, 1991, 1992; Bordas, 1994; Agues and Gonclaves,1998; Anoymous, 2000; Alan, 2003; Alan

& Wong, 2004). There has been, in general, an increase in the applicability and

principles of services destination marketing which has paralleled in the marketing services community.

There are four key principles which destinations must follow if they are to be competitive (Poon, 1993): put the environment first; make tourism a leading sector;

strengthen the distribution channel in the market; build a dynamic private sector.

These principles are clearly too broad and general to be significant to tourism managers and marketers.

The distorted image of people in the Middle East region has influenced the steady flow of tourists in the 1990s and caused a sharp decline in tourist numbers as the strife heated in the world. A decline of more than 50% in some markets was documented. A sound marketing strategy should focus on this point and should promote a safe destination area (Chon, 1991). People are very important factors in marketing tourism policies so that a diversification opportunity exists in terms of difficulties in the destination area where the focus can shift to better destinations (Douglas, 1994).

Laws (1995) and Sirakya (1996) have made numerous attempts to classify the major elements of a destination. Among these elements are culture, ecology, architecture, climate, cost, transport, entertainment, hotels and catering. Destination-based attributes could be many and different from one destination to another.

The image of a country as a tourist destination is a very important issue to any country of hospitable people with a high level of education, high and respectable reputation and, also, a country of safe and secure destination areas (Chon, 1991, 1992; Douglas, 1994; Radmacher,1997; Jenkins, 1999; Gallarza et al, 2001; Dimanche, 2003).

However, these points are correct with different implications, but there are no negative implications on the tourist’s security and safety.

4.3 Strategy and Tactic

This section is concerned with the definition of strategic and tactical and the distinction between them. The distinction between strategic and tactical marketing is huge (Gronroos, 1996; Martin, 1999, 2001; Hilty, 2005; Nickols, 2006). The

definitions of both strategic and tactical and the differences between them are now discussed.

4.3.1 Definition of Strategy and Tactic

The term strategy is a concept and or/ means that has been borrowed from the military and adapted for business utilisation, while the term tactic is a series of processes and or/instructions or the orders to be followed which are stepped through, driven by external motivation (Martin, 2001; Nickols, 2006). However together, strategy and tactics bridge the gap between ends and means. This derives from military which is evidently a means to political ends. Strategy is a science plan dealing with long-term decision-making to attain organizational objectives, but tactical is a decision of short-term policy to accomplish the organisation objectives for both military and business (Hilty, 2005).

Strategy is comprehensive process that includes the “big picture”- the overall plan and used describe a firm as a service business. Therefore, a tactic is an element of strategic process that develops a customer-oriented service system in a short-term for the firm. Thus, strategy is a company perspective, position, plan and model that aim to bridge between management aims or policy on one side and concrete tactics on the other. Both strategy and tactics play essential roles for straddling the gap between policy and tactics in business as well as in the military, as well, strategy refers to a compound net of opinions, ideas, insights, aims, memories, experiences, awareness, know-how and expectations that offers general direction for exact events in search of particular ends (Nickols, 2006). Accordingly, the term tactic is defined as distinct things to different people which are the set of directions or commands to be adopted in the empirical field as means for employing the troops and the transfer of the concept to the business world (Martin, 1999).

However, table 4.1 illustrates and summarise the differences between strategic and tactical aspects of tourism and destination marketing. Generally, people incorrectly assume that when they are talk about marketing, they are automatically talking about strategic marketing such as placing advertisements, generating leads, designing websites, sending out mailers or creating brochures. This offers a synopsis of the notions and schemes within the tourism marketing method. Tourism marketing

specifies that customer demand and its dimensions are important to know, in order to affect, please and manage it usefully. This indicates that people often fail to understand that the strategic aspects of tourism marketing is concerned with interpreting questions- such as what business to say, how they will say it, who they say it to and what opportunities can found. Thus, it believes that building marketing strategy at the beginning is always more important than the marketing medium where they say it that strategy will lead at the end to the choice of the right marketing medium. As such, in tourism marketing aims are set at two levels: strategic which covers the total business over the long covers precise markets and tourism products in the short term.

Table 4.1 The Differences between Strategic and Tactical

Items No.

Strategic Tactical

1- Definition Strategy is defined as a plan, position and perspective

Tactic is defined as distinct features to deferent people

2. Level High level Low level

3. Refer Strategy refers to the deployment of troops, end results, what and why

Tactics refers to the employment of troops, means and how

4. Concept That which has been borrowed from the military and adopted for business utilitsation

A series of processes and or/

instructions or/ the orders to be followed

5- Policy Long-term policy Short-term policy 6- Process Strategic is comprehensive that is

used to define a firm as a service business

Tactics is an element of strategic process that developing customer oriented services system in a short-term for the firm

Strategy is the bridge between high/

order aims or policy in one side and tactics or concrete action on the other

Strategy and tactics bridge the gap between ends and means

7- Links

Both strategy and tactics are used for straddling the gap between policy and tactics in business as well as in the military context

In the tactical context of the short run, most marketing decisions in tourism and destination marketing can be defeated view of the objectives in the time-consuming and urgent tactical decisions of day-to-day business. There is evidence that last minute charge discounting is a pertinent strategy for attracting new visitors to tourism sites. Also, the elements of destination marketing can be utilised for administration in the shape of developing, pricing, advertising and allocating tourism products or

services. While a destination, site or lodgings product share some comparisons, differences in market features and customer profiles were crucial in signifying marketing approaches.

Gronroos (1996) described the strategic topics in relationship marketing were known as: defining the firm as a service business; managing the firm from a process management perspective; developing partnerships and networks and described the tactical elements of relationship marketing strategy as a tool to achieve the strategy objective by looking for direct contacts with customers, by developing and building customers database. Finally, strategy refers to the "what and why" and tactics refers to the "how." Strategic issues deal with overriding mission and purpose, why the organisation exists, how it makes a difference that others don not or can not make, and where it will be in the future.

4.3.2 Strategic Management Processes of Tourist Destinations

The focal point of strategic planning and management is a consideration of the development in thought. Therefore, a theoretical analysis of the development of strategic management philosophy is presented (Gluck et al, 1980, 1982, Blazer &

Rovelstad, 1983; Blomstrom, 1983; Magrath and Hardy, 1989; Gilbert, 1990; March, 1994; Hax and Majluf, 1996; Heene and Sanchez, 1997; Thompson, 1997; Heath, 2000; Haberberg and Rieple, 2001; Easterby and Lowe, 2002; Hitt et al, 2003;

Campbell et al, 2003; Lubbe, 2003). This development is called the first strategic management process of tourist destination. The basic elements (components) of the strategic planning framework will be evaluated as the second process of strategic management.