As a member of the British Empire, Australia‘s music education history and practice reflects developments in Britain in the 19th and early 20th century (Australian Government Department of Education, 2005). Throughout the colonial period to Federation in 1901, instrumental ensemble music in Australian schools was often limited to drum and fife bands. It was not until the 1920s that music education was introduced into the secondary school system, and it was only in the 1930s that specialist music teachers were appointed to secondary schools (Stevens, 1997).
During the 1920s instrumental ensemble music became an important component of the school music curriculum with the establishment of school orchestras and bands (Stevens, 1997). Music education curriculum expanded greatly from 1920 with the inclusion of percussion bands to primary music classrooms and in the 1940s recorder playing was introduced into the curriculum in many states. It was not until the 1960s that classroom instrumental music and creative music making became more firmly established with the Orff-Schulwerk approach predominating
within the school context was the Kodály method. An adaptation of the Kodály method to better suit the Australian cultural context has become well established throughout Australia. This adapted method developed by Doreen Bridges and Deanna Hoermann has been referred to as the Developmental Music Program (Stevens, 1997).
A study undertaken by Bartle (1968) discovered that the status and condition of music education in Australian schools, especially primary schools, was poor. Bartle (1968) recommended that there was a need for the music syllabus to be reformed and specialist music educators be trained and employed. In addition to this recommendation, Bartle (1968) suggested that itinerant instrumental teachers be employed to prepare students for the transition from primary school music to music in the high school setting.
In 1989 the Australian Education Council began the process of developing a national framework for Australian schools that was published as the Hobart Declaration (Ministerial Council on Employment, 1989). Out of this process eight Key Learning Areas were identified: Mathematics, English, Technology, Science, The Arts, Languages Other Than English, Studies of Society and the Environment and Health (Ministerial Council on Employment, 1989; Curriculum Corporation, 1994b, 1994a). These were re-affirmed by the later Adelaide Declaration (Ministerial Council on Education, 1999) and Melbourne Declaration (Ministerial Council on Education, 2008). Music was included as one of five subject strands within the Key Learning Area of The Arts, thereby establishing it as an integral component in the general education of young people in Australia (Curriculum Corporation, 1994b). Most state education authorities subsequently developed their
own arts curriculum frameworks based on two documents pertinent to the arts: A Statement on the Arts for Australian Schools (Curriculum Corporation, 1994b); and The Arts: A Curriculum Profile for Australian Schools (Curriculum Corporation, 1994a). The Australian Education Council‘s A Statement on the Arts for Australian Schools (Curriculum Corporation, 1994b) identifies the requirement for instrumental ensemble instruction and performance stating that it should be an extension of the learning processes in the music classroom (Curriculum Corporation, 1994b).
Classroom music education in the Australian primary school setting at the commencement of the 21st century continues to emulate the methodological and philosophical influences from the UK and the USA. The lasting influences of German composer Carl Orff, Hungarian composer and ethnomusicologist Zoltán Kodály and Swiss composer and music educator Émile Jaques-Dalcroze have had, and still do have, a strong influence on the music education of Australian primary school students. Dalcroze, Orff and Kodály‘s methodological approaches have had a far reaching impact on music education in the USA, the UK and Australia (as well as other countries) since their introduction in the 1940s, 1960s and 1970s respectively (Stevens, 1997; Hardy, 2006).
Despite some work related to ensemble instrumental music in schools Hardy (2006) maintains that there is great sparsity in respect to the literature in this area. However, the Australian Government‘s 2005 National review of school music education: Augmenting the diminished does include reference to ensemble instrumental music in schools. The review was ―prompted by a widespread recognition that music is an important part of every child‘s education and a general perception that Australian school music education is approaching a state of crisis‖
(Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training, 2005, p. ix). The review describes school music education as being taught in cross-curricular settings, taught by generalist classroom teachers and specialist music teachers (Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training, 2005, p. 1). One of the recommendations of the review is the need for primary and secondary music teachers to develop knowledge and skills in vocal and instrumental conducting to enable them to teach large and small ensembles (Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training, 2005, pp. 113-114, 116).
Instrumental music education provides students with a performance outlet for their developing musical understanding. However, very few instrumental programs provide students with the opportunity to participate in large ensemble rehearsals during the school day (Hardy, 2006). Often these ensembles are forced to rehearse before or after school (Hardy, 2006). Whilst the large performance ensembles are viewed by schools a valuable part of the school music program they are not considered as part of the music curriculum. The National review of school music education: Augmenting the diminished (Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training, 2005) found that the provision of instrumental and vocal music education in the states and territories varied. While some states and territories funded instrumental and vocal music services to some schools in some states and territories went without. While some schools provided for the instrumental music out of the school budget some schools did not and required parents to pay for these services on a user pays basis. This in turn creates a culture of ―those who play music are those who can pay for music‖ (Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training, 2005, p. 48).
In 2008 all Australian state governments agreed that a quality education for all Australian students is critical to maintain Australia's productivity and quality of life. An agreement was reached that a national curriculum, guided by the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, 2008) would be a core component in the delivering quality education. The development of a K–12 national curriculum is currently underway with the Arts, including Music, to be implemented as part of Phase Two of the Australian Curriculum (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2009).
As this study is based in Tasmania a survey of relevant literature in this state is essential. However, this survey revealed that little is known about the establishment of music education in Tasmania and even less is known about the history of ensemble instrumental music education in the state (Stevens, 2003; Hardy, 2006). Stevens (1997, para. 15) comments that music was gradually introduced into Tasmania and that it was not until 1905 ―that singing by the tonic sol-fa method was included in the ‗Course of Instruction‘ for primary schools‖ which emanated from the UK.
As the least populated state in Australia, music education has developed both sporadically and with varying foci in Tasmania. In many areas of the state a dichotomy exists between classroom based music education programs and instrumental/vocal ensemble programs which are still often viewed as extra- curricular activities (Hardy, 2006).
As was the case elsewhere in Australia during the colonial period (1788- 1901) ensemble instrumental music education in Tasmanian schools was limited to
drum and fife bands which were viewed as an extension of military drill which was taught in many schools (Stevens, 1997). From 1927 specialist string teachers were appointed in primary schools. Although high schools had been part of the Tasmanian state school system since 1913, it was not until the 1940s that music became part of the secondary school curriculum (Stevens, 1997).
As music education developed in Tasmania throughout the 20th century
administrative responsibilities for state schools moved from central departmental authority to regions, known as districts, and then to the local school level during the 1980s. By the late 1990s the responsibility for teaching music in state primary schools was undertaken by the generalist classroom teachers or by a music specialist. In some regions of the state access to ensemble instrumental music education is available, but once again it is related to school system and geographical location (Stevens, 2003).
Within the secondary school context music is taught by specialist music teachers. Hardy (2006), in his review of large instrumental music education in Australia writes that there is very little research on instrumental music education in Tasmania. Stevens‘ (2003) report on the National Report on Trends in School Music Education Provision in Australia provided a summary of the status of music education and instrumental music education within Tasmania providing an outline of the roles of music teaching staff within schools. The provision of instrumental teaching at the primary and secondary levels is generally provided by visiting teachers assigned to a group of schools or employed directly by the school (Stevens, 1997, 2003). These visiting teachers were, more often than not, responsible for conducting the school‘s band, orchestra or other large performance groups.
2.2.4 Summary
Over the second half of the 20th century the North American band movement
has spread throughout the world and can be found in many countries including: Austria, Canada, France, Holland, Japan, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. Whilst instrumental music education in the UK is not as formalised as it is in the USA, projects such as In Harmony have provided a variety of music education programs with government financial support. The United Kingdom‘s Education Secretary Ed Ball stated that it was his desire to provide ―Every child from all backgrounds should have the chance to perform, play an instrument or sing and I want every school to become a musical school" (Department for Education and Skills, 2007, para.5).
In Australia the traditional colonial ties from the UK have diminished and the band movement is gaining momentum in school music programs and in the community music scene (Hardy, 2006). The National review of school music education: Augmenting the diminished (Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training, 2005) recommended that a greater emphasis be placed in pre-service music educator training on instrumental and vocal conducting skills. This recommendation supports the notion that instrumental and vocal ensembles are teaching and learning environments and that individuals operating in these environments require specialised training in the skills, understandings and teaching strategies to successfully undertake this work.
With the continued development of ensemble instrumental music education through the medium of the wind band, it is important to understand the dual role of the ensemble teacher as a music educator and as conductor. The following sections discuss the music educator‘s work and the conductor-music educator‘s work.