RESPONSABLES DE LA APLICACIÓN DE LAS NORMAS BÁSICAS

A researcher’s worldview, philosophical approach and experience have fundamental impacts on her/his research (Bryman, 2008). It is therefore important to define and analyse my position in relation to the research subject. In this research, my perspective is based on three basic attributes: 1) my cultural characteristics of being a Manchu Chinese; 2) my professional experiences and understanding of conservation, resource management and indigenous issues gained from working with four different non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in China and New Zealand; and 3) a knowledge system developed from studying in Western academic institutions.

From my Chinese cultural background, I identify myself as a naturalist or Daoist, who believes in the harmonious relationships between nature (including all living and non-living forms) and humans, and among human beings (Lai, 2003). This belief generates

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scepticism towards reductionist approaches in conservation and resource management practices, and sparks my research interest in more holistic worldviews and pluralistic approaches, such as institutional networks and participatory conservation and

development. It also enables me to accept and apply the ideology and methodology of deep ecology and complex system theory, which recognise the interdependence and non-linear linkages among all living and non-living objects as a primary principle (Drengson and Inoue, 1995; Hammond, 2003).

My identity as a Man Tzu Chinese also has a special implication for the case study in Inner Mongolia. As Manchu⁸ share ancestry with the Mongolian people, it was relatively easy for me to be culturally accepted by the focal community. Furthermore, due to my previous work and research experience in Inner Mongolia (between 2004 and 2007), I speak basic Mongolian and understand Mongolian cultural traditions. This was

advantageous for gaining community acceptance and recognition of me and my research.

However, for in-depth communication in interviews and group discussions, I was assisted by a Mongolian/Mandarin translator.

Through my previous work and study experience in Western academic institutions, I have developed environmentalist views supporting the sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the environment through changes in public policy and individual behaviour (Meadowcroft, 1993). I am also significantly concerned with social equity and human rights. My previous research has shown me situations where people had a long history of sound stewardship of natural resources at the community level until they more recently lost their role in decision making. This finding triggered my current research.

It is also critically noteworthy that my use of qualitative methods for data collection and analysis could be affected by my previous experience and understanding. As Ezzy (2002) points out, pre-existing understanding and experience affect decision making regarding what to observe and what to do, and ultimately, affect the results. From all these

8 An ethnic group which differs from the Han majority in China.

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perspectives, I am an outsider to the research communities. Applying my own

knowledge and Western science-based worldview to judge traditional knowledge could lead to a bias in my research.

Although it is almost impossible to be an absolutely objective observer and researcher, the awareness of various potential biases may help to reduce the bias level and obtain truer results. In order to overcome the potential bias, I applied multiple research

methods to test the data from different sources and to triangulate the results. During the coding process of data analysis, I followed a grounded theory which has been proven to effectively minimise a researcher’s subjectivity in producing research results (Charmaz, 2006; Strauss and Corbin, 1997).

1.2 Cross-cultural research and power dynamics

As the aim of this research is to explore the global pattern of TEK and TEK conservation, it relies on communication with and learning from community members, researchers and practitioners across regions and across cultures. This research is then cross-cultural in nature and it faces specific moral and ethical challenges (Fons et al., 1997). Within cross-cultural research, power dynamics possess a central position of concern. As Smith (2005: 88) points out, “...research is not just a highly moral and civilised search for knowledge; it is a set of very human activities that reproduce social relations of power”.

The design of a research project, the methods for data collection and analysis, and the presentation of the results all reflect the power dynamics between researchers and the researched.

As many scholars critique, the scientific research of indigenous knowledge has been shaped by unbalanced power structures (e.g. Agrawal, 2002; Smith, 1999, 2005). The structure of such research has often favoured the position of the researcher, who in some cases has been implicated in Western colonialism (Smith, 2005). Most of the indigenous research has been carried out by Western researchers, not the indigenous people themselves. Therefore, the interpretation and presentation of indigenous

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knowledge in academic and public publications are more Westernised, if not colonial (Smith, 1999). An intellectual foundation for this phenomenon might be that, “It is difficult for people from ‘advanced’ cultures to accept the idea that people from

‘primitive’ cultures might know something scientifically significant, or even know more about a subject within the field of natural science than do scientists” (Lewis, 1989:78).

I am aware that my Western academic background could make me less sensitive to TEK systems and values, despite my full willingness and intention to acknowledge them.

Where Western science and TEK are rooted in different worldviews, methodologies and power structures (Berkes, 2008), it can be challenging for Western researchers to access, interpret and present TEK without bias.