SISTEMA ELECTORAL Y DE ELECCIÓN DE LOS REPRESENTANTES INDÍGENAS

(i) The learners are passive instead of active participants. The lecture method violates the principle of learning by doing.

(ii) A clear and vigorous verbal presentation requires a great deal of preparation for which management personnel often lack the time.

(iii) The attention span of even a well-motivated and adequately informed listener is only from 15 minutes to 20 minutes so that in one course of an hour, the attention of listeners drifts.

(iv) It is difficult to stimulate discussion following a lecture, particularly if he listener is uninformed or awestruct by the lecturer.

(v) The untrained lecturer either ramples or packs far too much information in the lecture, which often becomes unpalatable to the listener.

(vi) The presentation of material should be geared to a common level of knowledge.

(vii) It tends to emphasis the accumulation and memorization of facts and figures and does not lay stress on the application of knowledge.

(viii) Through a skilful lecturer can adapt his material to the specific group, he finds it difficult to adjust it for individual differences within a group.

2. The Conference Method: In this method, the participating individuals ‘conver’ to discuss points of common interest to each other. A conference is basis to most particeipative group-centred methods of development. It is a formal meeting, conducted in accordance with an organized plan, in which the leader seeks to develp knowledge and understanding by obtaining a considerable amount of oral participation of the trainees.

Three types of conferences are 1. Directed discussion 2. Training conference 3. Seminar conference

3. Seminar or Team Discussion: This is an established method for training. A seminar is conducted in many ways: (i) It may be based on a paper prepared by one or more trainees on a subject selected in consultation with the

person in charge of the seminar. It may be a part of a study or related to theoretical studies or practical problems. The trainees read their papers, and this is followed by critical discussion. The chairman of the seminar summaries the contents of the papers and the discussion which follow their reading.

(ii) It may be based on the statement made by the person in charge of the seminar or on a document prepared by an expert, who is invited to participate in the discussion.

(iii) The person is charge of the seminar distributes in advance the material to be analyzed in the form of required readings. The seminar compares the reactions of trainees, encourages discussion, defines the general trends and guides the participants to certain conclusions.

(iv) Valuable working material may be provided to the trainees by actual files. The trainees may consult the files and bring these to the seminar where they may study in detail the various aspects, ramifications and complexities of a particular job or work or task.

(d) Case Studies (or Learning by doing): This method was first developed in the 1880s by Christopher Langdell at the Harvard Law School to help students to learn for themselves by independent thinking and by discovering in the ever-tangled skein of human affairs, principles and ideas which have lasting validity and general applicability. A collateral object is to help them develop sills in using their knowledge.

(i) Master the facts, become acquainted with the content of the case; (ii) Define the objectives sought in dealing with the issues in the case, (iii) Identify the problems in case and uncover their probable causes; (iv) Develop alternative co of action;

(v) Screen the alternatives using the objectives as the criteria;

(vi) Select the alternative that is most in keeping with the stated objectives. (vii) Define the controls needed to make the action effective; and

(viii) To ‘role play’ the action to test its effectiveness and find conditions that may limit it.

(e) Role-playing: This method was developed by Moreno, a Venetian psychiatrist. He coined the terms “role- playing,” “role-reversal”, “socio-drama”, “psychodrams”, and a variety of specialized terms, with emphasis on learning human relations skills through practice and insight into one’s own behaviour and its effect upon others. It has been defined as “a method of human interaction which involves realistic behaviour in the imaginary situations.”

The Role-playing method merits are:  Learning by doing is emphasized;

 Human sensitivity and interactions are stressed;  The knowledge of results is immediate;

 Trainee interest and involvement tend to be high;

 It is a useful method to project the living conditions between learning in the classroom and working on a job and creating a live business situation in the classroom.

 It develops skills and ability to apply knowledge, particularly in areas like human relations; and  It brings about desired changes in behaviour and attitudes.

(f) Programmed Instruction (or Teaching by the Machine Method):

Programmed instruction involves a sequence of step which are often set up through the central panel of an electronic computer as guides in the performance of a desired operation or series of operation. It incorporates a pre-arranged, proposed, or desired course of proceedings pertaining to the learning or acquisition of some specific skills or general knowledge.

The merits of the methods are:

 Trainees learn at their own pace;

 Instructors are not a key part in learning;

 The materials to be learned are broken down into small units;  Immediate feedback is available;

 Active learner participation takes place at each step in the programme.  Individual differences can be taken into account;

 Training can be imparted at odd times and in odd places;  There is a high level of learner motivation.

Demerits of the methods are:

 The impersonality of instructional setting;

 An advanced study is not possible until preliminary information has been acquired;  Only factual subject matters can be programmed;

 Philsophical and attitudinal concepts and motor skills cannot be taught by this method; and  The cost of creating any such programme is very great.

(g) T-Group Training: This method of training is a technique of composition of audio visual aids and planned reading programmes.

Audio-visual aids – records, tapes, and films are generally used in conjunction with other conventional teaching method.

 Some employees are engaged in a confined phase of a particular task and lose their all-round skills in a particular trade. Hence, to keep them active in all-found skills, such training is needed.

 During prolonged lay-off periods, employees on certain highly skilled jobs are given retraining when they are called back to work.

 Technological changes may make a particular job, on which an employee is working. Unnecessary, and the company may desire to retrain him rather than discharge him.

 An employee, because of illness, accident or incapacity due to age, may no longer be able to do his share of the work he performed when he was in normal health.

 Economic depression or cyclical variations in production create conditions in which employment stabilization may be achieved by having a versatile work-force capable or performing more than one job.

STEPS TO INCREASE TO IMPROVE EFFECTIVENESS OF TRAINING