SUJETO PASIVO (EXPROPIADO)

The main problem of displaying stereo images is delivering left and right views to corresponding eyes while minimising interference. Additional challenges are created in cases where multiple observers watch stereo content or when a single observer changes position while watching content. Different techniques have been proposed for displaying stereoscopic images and videos, and all of them have some trade-offs. Devices can be broadly divided into three categories: stereo- scopic direct-view displays, head-mounted displays and autostereoscopic displays. This section explains concepts and provides a brief overview of stereo displays. Detailed literature surveys, which describe many specific implementations, are provided by Holliman (2006), Benzie et al. (2007) and Ureyet al. (2011).

2.6.1

Direct-View Stereoscopic Displays

Direct-view stereoscopic displays require specialised eye-ware to separate left and right views (see Figure 2.12). Wearing glasses is usually undesirable for users, which is the main drawback of this approach. Techniques that these displays use can be categorised into: colour separated, polarisation separated, and time separated.

Colour-Separated Displays

One of the earliest methods used to separate stereo images was using colour (anaglyph) glasses (Rollmann, 1853). In this case the colour of glass/film filters the appropriate view from the stereo image which is colour coded. Typically

(a) Anaglyph Glasses (b) Polarised Glasses

(c) Shutter Glasses (d) Head-Mounted Display

Figure 2.12: Stereoscopic Glasses and Head-Mounted Display (a) Anaglyph glasses are the most affordable, but provide low quality view separation. (b) Po- larised glasses are light, affordable, separate images well, but require specialised display hardware to generate polarised image. (c) Shutter glasses separate images well, but are more expensive and bulkier than the other two. (d) Head-mounted displays provide complete separation, but are expensive and heavy.

chromatically opposite colours such as red and cyan colours are used for cod- ing. Anaglyph glasses are cheap, and anaglyph images can be displayed using traditional media including 2D screens and paper, making this approach easily accessible. However, it is also one of the worst methods to separate stereo im- ages as it loses colour information, increases crosstalk (see Section 2.3.5) and can create visual discomfort during prolonged viewing especially if colour coding is not performed well (Dubois, 2001).

Polarisation-Separated Displays

Polarisation-separated displays use the state of polarisation of light to separate left and right images. A projector or screen polarises each of the images in one of the two mutually orthogonal directions while polarised filters on glasses

respond to a single view. Linear or circular types of polarisation can be used, with latter being more desirable as it enables larger head tilt before crosstalk becomes apparent. This method is frequently used in cinemas but is not limited to projectors only, and flat panel displays are also available (Wu et al., 2008). The advantages of the method include: cheap glasses, high resolution images and good colour reproduction. However, a special screen is required to preserve the polarisation of the image, with front projection using silver screen and back projection using Fresnel-lenticular surfaces. Also two projectors might be needed (each having different polarisation filters), but single projection solutions are in use as well (Bogaertet al., 2008). Inadequate choice of the projection lens or the screen can cause ghosting, hot spots and falloff of intensity.

Time-Separated Displays

Time-separated displays exploit the concept of vision persistence. Here left and right images are displayed consecutively on the screen at high frame rates (usually 120 frames per second) while active shutter glasses completely block the view to one of the eyes and are synchronised with the screen. An infrared emitter usually synchronises the glasses with a screen. This technology minimises crosstalk, enables viewing of images in full resolution and can use traditional, high refresh rate screens. On the other hand, the cost of glasses is increased as they are battery powered, and a higher frame rate requires a higher bandwidth. This technology is popular with PC and laptop users, because they are usually used by an individual requiring a single set of glasses. Nvidia’s 3D vision technology, which uses shutter glasses (Boher et al., 2010), enables playing most PC games in 3D.

2.6.2

Head-Mounted Displays

Head-mounted displays (HMD) deliver the image to two (or more) small screens mounted in front of the user’s eyes. The left and right images are completely separated so crosstalk is avoided, and because the device is head-worn, the user is able to move without interrupting viewing. This improves the feeling of im- mersion which can be even further enhanced using HMDs with head tracking and see-through HMDs. Head tracking provides information about the device’s position and orientation which can be used to update the view and avoid un- wanted effects such as sheer distortion (Section 2.3.5). See-through HDMs are

especially useful for augmented reality applications because they can superim- pose computer-generated images and information over real-world scenes (Ferrari

et al., 2009). Increased immersion has made HDMs a popular choice in training applications and simulations. However, they still come with a set of problems. A large field of view is hard to achieve, but this challenge was tackled using the method of optical tiling where eye tracking is used to combine a high resolution inset image and a low resolution background. The HMDs can be bulky and heavy which can be distracting during viewing, and they are also expensive.

2.6.3

Autostereoscopic Displays

Autostereoscopic displays separate left and right views without the observer wear- ing any special eye-ware. While this enables viewing stereo content in a more traditional and comfortable way, these displays usually have other undesirable properties, including decreased image resolution, limited viewing angles and in- creased crosstalk. Autostereoscopic displays can be categorised further into: two- view, multiview and head-tracked displays.

Two-View Autostereoscopic Displays

Two-view displays present a single left and right image which is independent of observer’s position. Images can be separated using the parallax barrier system or the lenticular system. Both systems display left and right image columns alternatively (see Figure 2.13). A physical barrier made of vertical strips can be put in front of the screen to block one of the views for one eye resulting in the parallax barrier systems. Alternatively, cylindrical lenses can be used to direct light from pixels to specific points in space resulting in a lenticular system. These elements can be disabled, resulting in traditional 2D displays. Depending on the screen design, the stereo image can be observed correctly either from a single location (a “sweet spot”) or from a number of predetermined locations. In the latter case, the same pair will be displayed resulting in sheer distortion (Section 2.3.5). If viewed from positions other than the intended viewing positions, the stereo effect can be lost and the number of artefacts can be large, increasing the chance of eye fatigue. Also, because the screen is displaying left and right images simultaneously, half the resolution is lost.

(a) Parallax Barrier Screen (b) Lenticular Screen

Figure 2.13: Two-View Autostereoscopic Displays (a) Parallax barrier screen blocks one of the views using vertical strips. (b) Lenticular system uses cylindrical lenses to deliver a view to its target.

Multiview Autostereoscopic Displays

Multiview displays are similar to the two-view ones, in that they provide a correct image at specific locations. However, a different stereo image is displayed to each of these locations corresponding to the projection of the scene to that point. In this way sheer distortion is avoided and the impression of depth is strengthened. Multiview displays can also use parallax barriers and lenticular technology to separate views or they can use time separation. However, the number of views they generate is small, so they are unable to provide continuous motion parallax. Multiview displays have found an application area in the mobile phone industry (Flack et al., 2007), as mobile phones usually involve a single user capable of rotating a device and finding an optimal viewing position easily.

Head-Tracked Displays

Head-tracked displays are able to follow the position of the observer and project the stereo pair to the current position (Sexton et al., 2006). Eye position can be tracked using computer vision algorithms which analyse video at high frame rates. The perception of the image is similar to direct-view displays, but glasses are not required when using this method. Technologies which deliver images to the intended positions include: traditional and Fresnel lens, projectors, parallax barrier, prisms and holography. Depending on the design, displays can support one or multiple users. A single viewer version is a commercially available, while

multi-user ones are still prototypes. Head-tracking using video is challenging for cases where user(s) are watching TV in extremely dark or bright environments.