Tratado de Libre Comercio de América del Norte (TLCAN).

The idea that the empowerment process is a continuum or that it takes place through several theoretical progressive stages is well-established across the disciplines discussed above (Hur 2006; Laverack 2001; Sadan 1997). However, different authors suggest slightly differing terms and numbers of stages in the process. For example, Hur (2006) suggests that there be five progressive stages including existing social disturbance, conscientising, mobilising, maximising, and creating a new order; while Sadan (1997) suggests six progressive stages including frustration, the presence of conducive social structure, ability and resources, mobilisation of will, conscientising, maximising, and mobilisation of resources/new order. Each author also provides slightly differing meanings for each term in the continuum. A model that integrates both authors’ progressive stages is presented in Table II-3 below.

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Table II-3: Progressive stages of community empowerment

Hur (2006) Sadan (1997) Meaning

Existing social disturbance

Frustration Dissatisfaction, disadvantage, oppression, alienation, stratification Presence of conducive

social structure, ability & resources

The existence of minimal level of ability and resources to initiate change and conducive social structure and system that enable this

The mobilisation of will Willingness and resolve to obtain resources and develop abilities to achieve one’s own goal

Conscientising Conscientising Developing critical consciousness of (pre)existing situation

Mobilising (organising)

Mobilising collective action, sharing power with others by joining

organisations and movements Maximising Maximising People’s belief in their own abilities,

self-efficacy, self-organisation to achieve their own goals

Creating a new order Mobilisation of resources/new order

Securing an ongoing ability to participate in decision-making and influencing the system by creating organisations that transform old institutions and structures

The above summary shows the differences in meaning attributed to each stage by each author. It also shows how the two approaches complement each other and can be integrated logically into an empowerment continuum with seven stages. The seven stages include existing social disturbance/frustration, presence of favourable social structure and reasonable ability and resources, the mobilisation of will, conscientising, mobilising, maximising and creation of a new order.

2.5.1.1 Existing social disturbance or frustration

‘Existing social disturbance’ or ‘frustration’ is a sense of powerlessness that causes social disturbance and starts with some dissatisfaction created due to the gap between what one expects of life and what happens in life (aspiration and the challenges faced to realising it) (Sadan 1997). Frustration or social disturbance is the beginning of the empowerment process, which manifests differently in different circumstances. It may include the existence of disadvantage, oppression, alienation, and stratification.

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2.5.1.2 The presence of conducive social structure and reasonable

ability and resources

Empowerment requires the existence of a minimal level of ability and resources to initiate change. The existence of individual and collective resources serves as the bases of power that make the exercise of power and the empowerment of the community possible (Wrong 1979). This implies that if favourable conditions do not exist in the social structure and system to enable empowerment, it may be constrained. In other words, one cannot assume that social disturbances or frustration alone will lead to empowerment unless there are favourable conditions in the social structure and system. Sadan (1997) believes that the availability of resources, which pre-exist actors, determine the ability of actors to act and influence outcomes, and the less accessible the resource, the less able the actors to influence the social structure. Thus, the empowerment process is highly dependent on the existing social reality, and the kind and extent of change that takes place at the individual, community, and systemic level.

2.5.1.3 The mobilisation of will

Empowerment begins when people are willing to obtain resources and develop abilities that enable them to achieve their life goals. The mobilisation of resolve and will is considered as the first outcome in the process.

2.5.1.4 Conscientising

People’s recognition of their right to express aspirations and their ability to define them is the outcome of developing a critical consciousness of the existing situation (see Freire 1970, 1973). The identification of social disadvantage, or any social problem, given the social structure is conducive to social change, can empower the community to ‘conscientise’ themselves; to be aware of the difficulties and challenges they face and to recognise their ‘limited power’ to change their circumstances.

Hur (2006) indicates that conscientising can occur in two ways: through the intervention of outside agents who are ‘letting the disadvantaged learn’, and by the disempowered themselves creating critical consciousness. Whichever way disadvantage comes to be acknowledged, the key is that some learning about social reality, awareness of one’s disadvantaged position, is necessary for empowerment. It is a stage where awareness of how social and political structures affect individual and group experiences is expected to create ‘power within’ and strengthen the confidence to foster the possibility for change.

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2.5.1.5 Mobilising/organising

The fifth step is premised in the understanding that power grows by mobilising collective action or sharing power with others (Parpart et al. cited in Hur 2006). The assumption is if people gain awareness of their situation (disadvantage and powerlessness) and if opportunities for change exist in the structure, they are likely to join a movement or organisation to mobilise collective action to change their situation (see Alinsky 1971). At this stage, members of the community can take initiatives in empowering themselves by joining others (organisations or movements) to mobilise collective action.

2.5.1.6 Maximising

People’s belief in their own ability to achieve outcomes is an achievement in terms of a sense of individual ability to control one’s life. Self-efficacy may become collective efficacy if it is translated into the community’s practical ability to organise itself for a collective effort to achieve outcomes in the environment. Hur (2006) suggests that this step is a turning point that transforms the process of mobilising collective action into that of creating a new order. Citing Gladwell (2000), Hur (2006, p. 529) states that ‘this step is like “the tipping point that little things can make a big difference.”’ Hur assumes that the more power is shared, the greater empowerment becomes circular in nature and that people feel able to utilise their confidence, desires, and abilities to bring about social change.

2.5.1.7 Creating new order

This is about ‘transforming’ old institutions and structures into new ones, or creating a new social order through organisation. This stage can only be realised if policy changes or changes in situations of the disadvantaged occur. Mobilising resources to continue the empowerment process, including resources of knowledge about organising and setting up community organisations, are outcomes that indicate that the empowerment process has established itself. This is a proof that people have secured an ongoing ability to achieve outcomes to control their lives, participate in decision-making, and influence the environment.

Sadan (1997) suggests that the entire sequence of progressive stages may be a hypothetical empowerment process, and each one of the stages is an end in itself and may also be a starting point for a different empowerment process. These stages outline a continuum through which empowerment can be attained; however, one needs to identify aspects of personal, collective and institutional changes that can be observed, in order to

K. Hiruy | Institute for Regional Development | Power and Empowerment: Review of the Literature ₅₂ analyse empowerment of a community group. The components of empowerment discussed below, are about observable attributes (both individual and collective attributes) that indicate the attainment of empowerment.