UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND
The Desires of a Dark
Tourist
Intrinsic Motivations
13013944
3/17/2016
Page | 1 Abstract
Purpose – A general review, exploring the slightly indiscernible desires located internally in individuals, related to that of a generic tourist and linked to drivers of motivation towards dark sites. Educational and psychological desires relate closely as drivers of motivation as well as the role of the media, since the 19th Century. This review looks at the significance of dark tourism in the 21st Century and suggests its existence is less dark than that of previous years, interrogating the labelling of this niche tourism market. Education is recommended to managers of dark sites as a fundamental aspect of orientation, in a bid to preserve the past and protect the future from unjust actions.
Page | 2 Contents
Introduction ... 3
Motivation ... 5
1.1Educational Desires ... 6
Typologies ... 6
Heritage ... 7
1.2 Psychological Desires ... 8
Voyeurism ... 9
Curiosity ... 10
Media ... 11
1.1 Igniting Educational Desires ... 11
1.2 Igniting Psychological Desires ... 12
Methodology ... 13
Practical Implications ... 15
1.1 Objectives Established Through Research ... 15
1.2Key Findings ... 16
1.3 Recommendations for Policies and Practice ... 17
Education ... 17
Commodification ... 18
Media ... 18
Conclusion ... 19
1.1Past Research into a Conceptual Framework ... 19
1.2A Conceptual Framework into Future Research ... 22
1.3Gaps in Dark Tourism Literature ... 22
Acknowledgements ... 24
Bibliography... 25
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Introduction
Death, disasters and atrocities are becoming increasingly ubiquitous within contemporary tourism (Stone, 2006). Thanatourism is defined as ‘travelling to a location solely, or partially, motivated by the desire for real or fake encounters with death particularly, violent death, however not exclusively’ (Seaton, 1996, p.240). While a variety of labels exist within this market (Table 1), dark tourism (hereinafter after referred to as DT) is used most and yet critiqued for oversimplifying a multi-dimensional phenomenon (Sharpley, 2005). Literature remains extensive and theoretically fragile, despite increasing attention (Stone, 2006). In support, questions remain regarding consumer demand, experiences, motivations and the overall negativity associated with the term, dark. This piece suggests that the term DT conflicts with the overall desires of many contemporary tourists which contribute towards the interrogation of the label (Bowman & Pezzullo, 2009).
Variety of Labels
Variety in the supply of DT sites and motivations results in typologies of the spectacle. Firstly, a matrix of supply and demand (Figure 1) (hereinafter referred to as MoSD) illustrates the variety of motivations that exist within tourists and, therefore, facilitates shades of darkness in respect of consumer behaviour (Sharpley, 2009). The influences of consumption discussed within this piece are neglected as the metaphors of consumption, which underpin its design; however they have been plotted according to the definitions of the axis’ (Sharpley, 2009). Additionally, a spectrum of intensity (Figure 2) (hereinafter referred to as SoI), was developed to plot sites perceived on shades of darkness (Stone, 2006). Both of these typologies were introduced in an attempt to comprehend consumer behaviour and yet it is commented that to clarify the existence of DT, research into motivations is required (Sharpley, 2005; Biran et
Author(s) Definition(s)
MacCannell (1989) ‘Negative sightseeing’
Rojek (1993) ‘Black spot’
Seaton (1996) ‘Thanatourism’
Dann (1998) ‘Milking the macabre’
Lennon & Foley (1999) ‘Dark tourism’ Lippard (1999) ‘Tragic tourism’
Blom (2000) ‘Morbid tourism’
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al, 2011). While DT had an existence in the 18th, 19th and 20th century, this piece looks to explore the fundamentally of it in the 21st century, touching on postmodernism in a commodified world, arguing perhaps its existence is less dark than its name.
This review is a theoretical piece and facilitates the analysis of qualitative papers from key authors. It is a contribution towards the motivational research and firstly looks into intrinsic. Within intrinsic motivation lies the need for seeking and escaping (Iso-Ahola, 1982) and associated with these behaviours are less visible educational and psychological, known for fuelling motivation. The media have played an overarching role (Seaton, 1996), pivotal in stoking motivation post the 19th century, and its essential relationship with DT is discussed. Igniting both internal desires, it holds power in creating global awareness (Lennon & Foley, 1999) and familiarity. Next practical implications are covered, with regards to key findings and
Figure 1 Adapted from: Sharpley (2009)
Matrix of Supply and Demand
Curiosity as an influencer of
consumption
Voyeurism as an influencer of consumption
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future recommendations, before introducing a conceptual framework that comprehends this review. Finally future research is subsequently called for in response to the findings. DT is gaining more attention within academics and, therefore, this topic is prominent, especially regarding future directions which highlights the importance of researching this field.
Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is associated with internal satisfaction and related behaviours performed to satisfy internal needs (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The satisfaction that individuals anticipate when partaking in leisure activities is associated with two motivational forces: seeking and escaping (Iso-Ahola, 1982). These involve feelings of mastery and a means of an exit from everyday life. When people experience intrinsic motivation, they show interest and enjoyment and this can
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be associated with the desire to learn (Reiss, 2004). Additionally, it is exaggerated by theorists like Kohn (1993) as an example of intrinsic motivation associated with satisfaction. While Dann (1981) states motivation is not an unconscious process, psychologists have claimed that a motive is an internal factor that provokes a person’s behaviour (Murray, 1975). Psychodynamic theorists equally focus on unconscious desires that relate to curiosities (Reiss, 2004), evident in the unconscious, as we battle with constraints of everyday life (Freud, 1962). Both educational and psychodynamic desires are discussed as examples of intrinsic motivations that provoke consumer behaviour.
1.1Educational Desires Typologies
Education is a fundamental motivator towards visiting dark sites (Lennon & Foley, 1999) and in support of this, several studies have concluded that educational motives are what drives visitors (Strange & Kempa, 2003; Stone, 2010; Biran et al, 2011). The case of Alcatraz and Robben Island (Strange & Kempa, 2003) concludes that many visitors were motivated towards visiting Robben Island with the desire to learn about the incarceration of Nelson Mandela and to explore their interest in African history and culture. Robben Island is perceived as having a higher degree of educational gain and, therefore, darker, regarding the SoI, than Alcatraz (Stone, 2006). In light of the SoI (Figure 2) sites placed at the darkest end are noted as educationally orientated, as opposed to the lighter end where positioning is concerned with the entertainment provided (Sharpley, 2005).
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education, naming the darkest sites educationally orientated neglects informative lighter sites.
DT offers a new social institution whereby the value of death is acknowledged and appreciated and becomes a source of playfulness, entertainment but also education (Stone & Sharpley, 2008). While visiting Auschwitz would not be coined playful, Sharpley (2005) argues that visitors who attend battlefields or Auschwitz are dark tourists. However the idea of education as a motive may be entirely devoid of the interest in death (Slade, 2003) and, therefore, questions the overall darkness of this phenomenon. It appears adverse to label the darkest sites as being educationally orientated. In support, Bowman & Pezzullo, (2009) claim appreciation and a growing desire for intellect on a topic that receives antagonistic association, interrogates the term, dark. On the other hand, classifying motivations towards visiting sites like Auschwitz, as not dark but leisurely, is inaccurate to assume (Tunbridge & Ashworth, 1996).
Heritage
Biran et al (2011) found that the overall motives of visitors at Auschwitz derived from the desire to learn, understand and gain an emotional experience (Table 2). In 2008 over 1 million people visited Auschwitz’s historical structures and museum, with the vast population originating from 30 different countries. 2015 saw a significant rise in the number of visitors from North and South America (Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum, 2015), suggesting people are travelling to learn. In support, Beech (2000) concluded a clear division was evident among visitors: those with a connection, e.g. survivors or a shared heritage and those who had no direct link and yet education remained the primary reason for visiting. The willingness to see the real site is to express empathy towards victims and a desire to connect to the victim’s heritage (Beech, 2000). Interest in heritage sites is growing and can be an active force in the restoration and conservation of particular heritages; this idea is supported by Africa’s historical and cultural heritage (Teye & Timonthy, 2004). Cape Coast Castle is a symbol of Africans unique heritage and visitors have the desire to learn about the site but also to feel a sense of belonging (Austin, 2002).
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justice and historical awareness whereby a prevention of past atrocious actions is vital for the future (Robb, 2009). Government policies are now encouraging this through curriculum activities that foresee schoolchildren visiting First World War battlefields, to mark the 100th anniversary of the outbreak (Paton, 2013). This project will run until 2019 aimed at encouraging children to learn about the sacrifices made by individuals in securing our nation. Besides, earlier forms of education are positively correlated with visiting dark sites in the future as a result of wanting to learn more. A list of studies undertaken at the Manx Heritage sites revealed a high percentage of visitors educated to a managerial level (Solomon & George, 1977). It is claimed that the historic atmosphere is appealing to wealthy retired persons, who are educationally motivated towards spending their time at sites of battles (Dann & Seaton, 2001). Therefore, it can be assumed that educating children from an early age in their nation’s history and culture may result in educative desires for visiting sites long term.
Past and present appreciation, heritage and prevention of unjust actions in the future, conflict with the historical roots that suggest thanatourism is experienced as a source of private pleasure (Seaton, 1996). Arguably, being motivated by the prospect of learning, does not make you a dark tourist, as your interest is devoid of death itself (Slade, 2003). Therefore, the positioning of education on the MoSD would be paler, in that your motives are not deemed dark (Figure 1). Government policies are in force to encourage visitation to sites, and these policies implemented for the purpose of remembrance will result in a lasting legacy of culture important to the nation (Gov, 2012). While the sites remain dark in characteristics, it is hard to judge whether visitor motivations are, particularly since several studies conclude educational desires to be an influencer (Table 2), associated with the need to seek enjoyment and interest (Iso-Ahola, 1982). Finally, Dann (1977) claims that gaining knowledge boosts your ego which in turn influences academic motivation, suggesting an overlap between the intrinsic desires.
1.2 Psychological Desires
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fascination with death (Seaton & Foley, 2004). In support, Buda & McIntosh (2013) were unable to conclude that the tourist in questioning was imprisoned because of future voyeuristic behaviour; however the participant agreed that everyone attains such behaviour and this can provoke visitation.
Voyeurism
Psychoanalytical theories explain voyeurism as the desire to look upon something that is forbidden (Lisle, 2004) and is argued as a mechanism that regulates our consumption of disaster and violence, whereby humans believe them to be both desirable and repulsive (Baudrillard, 1994). Cole (2000) claims voyeurism as a central aspect of ‘Holocaust tourism', providing the perfect opportunity to rubberneck and gaze at somebody else's tragedy. Nevertheless, visits to Auschwitz are closely linked to education and commemoration, which conflicts with deviant and voyeuristic conduct (Lisle, 2007). The neglect of voyeurism as a motivator stems from leisure and violence traditionally being adversative (Robb, 2009).
Disagreement over concerns relating to voyeurism and its negative association means neglecting the reasons behind why people gaze upon tragedy (Lisle, 2007). If we accept dark tourists as indulging in deviant behaviour, it is a result of tourism being an exclusive territory, separated from the routines of daily life (Uriely et al, 2011). Consequently, thanatourism will bear similarities to the theory that emphasises the constraints of everyday life as more than people can tolerate and, therefore, prefer chaos to the norms of humanity (Freud, 1962). In support of this, Dann (1998) identified one key motivator, as the desire to celebrate crime and deviance that is not socially permitted to everyday life.
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accepting of the commodified world and, therefore, unconcerned with authenticity and concerned with satisfying curiosity.
Curiosity
There are debates on the creation of the viewing platform at Ground Zero, which was initially constructed to manage thousands of curious people who travelled to New York in the response to the 9/11 attacks (Lisle, 2004, Seaton & Foley, 2004), to satisfy their natural desire towards atrocity. While the curiosity associated with DT is judged negative, some authors have argued that confronting atrocious behaviour is advantageous when in an acceptable context. Enabling people to rationalise fears and insecurities while putting merciless actions into context (Seaton & Lennon, 2004). However whether atrocity tours are for the sake of global awareness or to mask the recreational voyeuristic fascination of death and destruction, is questioned. When cruelty becomes, recreational visitors intentions can be deemed dark in parallel to the typical assumptions of deviant and voyeuristic behaviour (Robb, 2009).
Some studies have focused on touristic behaviours and the relation to the unconscious mind as a psychodynamic perspective (Uriely et al, 2011), and in specific unconscious needs within a particular type of tourism. Aspects of behaviour derive from the unconscious conflict of satisfying primitive desires and obeying social demands and, therefore, result in the Id and Super Ego. These elements of the human mind hold responsibility for tourist's engagement in deviant behaviour (Freud, 1962). The work of Freud is widely accepted as explanations of human behaviour and yet his ideas are inconsistent with authors like Lennon & Foley, who are keen to ignore deviance as a motivator (Lisle, 2004).
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Lastly, while psychological drives are embedded within everyone, educational desires are not and yet death is one heritage that everyone shares (Seaton, 1996) which suggest that educationally or psychologically, individuals are associated with death. However, Lennon & Foley (2000) argue that global technologies play an essential role in the initial interest towards sites and therefore dark tourism is a category of post-modernity.
Media
The media play an integral role in reconciling the dead and the living (Walter, 2009) and while it is not a motivator in itself, it holds the power to drive intrinsic motivations. Through messaging global events into situations that appear local they become a concern to the population (Lennon & Foley, 1999). The development of media-driven motivations have only existed as of the late 20th century and are responsible for bringing global knowledge on death directly to the homes of viewers. Ultimately, this has led to debates about whether DT is an intimation of post-modernity (Uriely, 2005), thus widening its comparisons with thanatourism, as its concurred thanatouristic behaviour has existed for centuries (Casbeard & Booth, 2009).
Post-modernism has equally caused the complexity of motivations of travellers and while televised information provides a source of familiarity, passengers are in search for visuals rather than authenticity (Muzaini et al, 2007). Although, it is argued that people seek to confirm the validity of global knowledge by visiting sites (Schofield, 1996). Therefore, popularity is induced through the frequent promotion of dark sites and intrinsic motivations are sparked, as individuals search for intellect and authentication.
1.1 Igniting Educational Desires
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have access to certain technologies providing stories of death and disaster. In support, a BBC news article claimed only 33% of people in the developing world use the Internet, compared to 77% in developed countries (Newer, 2014).
Studies argue that media strongly influences people to visit sites of death and destruction based on fulfilling the requirement of ‘authenticity and existential proximity' (Blom, 2000, p.35; Alderman, 2002) and yet there have been conflictions of this theory. Arguably, tourism might be expected to decline as our belief in authentication erodes as a result of ever-changing images portrayed by the media. Our culture, associated with TV, withers our sense of place and recognition of community (Rojek, 1997). However in evaluation, the present day shows an increase in DT (Coldwell, 2016) and critically, those who have a direct association with the site, i.e. heritage, may not be subject to authenticity erosion because of an emotional connection (Beech, 2000). On the other hand, children and adolescents are not touched by events in the past (Craig & Thompson, 2012) and live in a world surrounded by violence, especially in the media.
Studies have proven that violence subjected to children desensitises them (Villani, 2001) further highlighting the importance of connecting children to the nation's past, as recognised in Governmental Policies. While it is argued that the media plays a part in the desensitisation of violence, some claim that people seek to confirm the validity of global knowledge portrayed by the media (Schofield, 1996) which results in satisfying psychological desires like curiosity, driving motivation.
1.2 Igniting Psychological Desires
The media are powerful enough to enforce moral panic through society by reporting cases of thanatourism (Seaton & Lennon, 2004) and allowing individuals the opportunity to satisfy their curiosity. Whether it be from the comfort of their home, or by introducing new sites of death and disaster, external visitation is made available (Blom, 2000). Most travellers begin as tourists in their front room and the media prompt pursuits of voyages (Robb, 2009), while providing stimulation, offering familiarity and an instant urge for exploration (Biran & McIntosh, 2014).
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is positively correlated (Seaton & Lennon, 2004). Once events are publicised via mediums, people seek black spots without the encouragement of commercialisation (Rojek, 1997). For example, the 9/11 attacks, resulted in an urgent requirement for a viewing platform to hold the viewers safely (Lisle, 2004) and yet it is expected that the viewing platform was a way of commercialising to attract visitors.
In support, the media ignite a voyeuristic spark in viewers and indulging their curiosity, irrespective of a socially acceptable environment (Kaelber, 2007). By the mid-19th century, death was widely visible to the public and adopted more of an entertainment value. The present day allows the media to go further than increase anxiety, but to feed the public's fascination with death and as attraction grows the more the media feeds (Craig & Thompson, 2012), concluding it as the dominant influence on both the supply and demand of DT (Stone, 2006).
Finally, despite the media's critical role in initiating interest (Lennon & Foley, 2000), psychological desires including the curiosity in death, are embedded in individuals. Some are media consumers and, therefore, demand sensation at the same time as the growing supply of articles and pictures (Blom, 2000). The media convey messages of global knowledge to the living rooms of individuals seeking to satisfy educational desires and to escape the constraints of everyday life that forbid such psychological desires. Therefore, it remains imperative for managers of dark sites to understand whether individuals are in search for authenticity or commodification when orientating sites.
Methodology
Primary empirical literature is universal within the research analysed for this review. A lot of studies involve original data and are qualitatively rich. Although some literature interpreted, for example, chapters in Sharpley & Stone (2009), are theoretically based. Their purpose was conceptual and provided brief arguments on the topic. Qualitative research as a philosophy contrasts with quantitative studies in many ways: it aims to understand social phenomena as opposed to explaining one; it is non-numerical as opposed to numerical; it is inductive and interpretative as opposed to hypothesis-driven (Wellington & Szczerbinski, 2007).
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most of the cases studied have adopted a constructivist perspective to organise the qualitative research (Guba & Lincoln, 1998). Social constructivists believe that individuals seek to understand the world they live in and develop subjective meanings. In studies conducted at Auschwitz persons with a direct connection developed subjective meanings of their experiences and to those without a direct link (Beech, 2000), providing varied results and several meanings (Creswell, 2014).
Most methodology in DT involves semi-structured interviews and, within, the use of open questions which allows for flexibility and more in-depth findings (Bryman & Bell, 2015). Detailed interviews are appropriate to most studies as these form the basis of the following questionnaire design distributed to a larger population (Biran et al, 2011). The administration of questionnaires have cost and time advantages and yet researchers need to be sensitive and considerate towards questions asked. As well as these, observations led to visitor identification (McIntosh, 1999; Beech, 2000). Behaviour is significant in gathering information on consumer motives and, therefore, expressions concerning non-verbal communication, eye contact and the way people are perceived are necessary for field researchers (Newman, 2011).
Studies relating to the relationship between media and DT involved content analysis. After emerging in the 20th century, studies sought to analyse messages in the mass media (Henwood, 1996) and qualitatively examined photographs and newspapers, identifying relationships between the press and DT (Dann, 2005; Kingsbury & Brunn, 2004). Little quantitative research methods exist in DT studies; however some adopt a mixed methods approach. McIntosh (1999) took a structured approach by which qualitative data is combined with the generality of quantitative data and yet, this reduces personal meanings and perceptions to superficial referential relationships, which is unsuitable when exploring consumer motives.
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hard to generalise the data found in one setting to another, especially with regards to subjective meanings of motivation.
Finally, the authenticity of the studies remains a little ambiguous as some fail to explain their methodology in detail, leaving the reader unsure about whether they have personally visited the sites. Some studies offer plausibility, however arguably additional research is needed in understanding the findings of many studies due to the lack of theorising in DT literature. Some research enlightens emancipative possibilities from social restraints. Individuals can recognise the ability to satisfy curiosity, forbidden in everyday life, in an environment valued socially acceptable.
Practical Implications
This review is for the broad audience of any practitioner in DT, but particularly for the attention of the executives at DT sites who duties lie in management. While the research is based more so on darker sites, regarding the SoI (Figure 2), like sites of conflict and genocide, these recommendations can be taken into consideration by managers of both lighter and darker sites. This review is not subjective to England as a nation regarding findings. However, the educational recommendations are for the attention of managers present in England. The objectives designed through extensive research facilitate the key findings listed below.
1.1 Objectives Established Through Research
The primary purpose of this piece to contribute an understanding of what influences motivation to dark sites. Additionally, media is pivotal to DT studies and, therefore, highlighting the relationship between the media, DT and its effect on drivers of motivation is the second objective. These objectives are underpinned by the initial stages of research in which key authors identified key themes. Media and motivation were consistent subjects in most literature initially reviewed. Despite its historical nature, DT is relatively new in name and, therefore, has little citation influence, yet a large amount of the literature reviewed are articles from Annals of Tourism Research. This journal focuses on the academic perspectives of tourism and is known for publishing the best-executed work, being rated as a 4 (ABS).
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human mind. The key links made between general motivations in tourism, key drivers of motivation related specifically to dark tourism and the media facilitated through the analysis of qualitatively rich studies, resulted in the following key findings.
1.2Key Findings
While the MoSD positions itself as an essential basis for understanding the relationship between supply and demand, the positioning of educational and psychological desires is challenging when neglected from consumer behaviour.
The SoI is as a good framework for managers to consider, however itneglects the idea that paler sites can be education orientated.
In practice, these typologies may be problematic in helping managers understand motives. Lack of an understanding of the less visible internal desires in consumer’s leads to managers ignoring the expectations of these visits and, therefore, misaligning experiences accordingly, resulting in customer dissatisfaction and the site neglecting either an educative or
entertainment purpose. Managers of lighter touristic sites may disregard education when concerning their orientation. While younger generations experience lighter sites, such as The London Dungeons, the sites should seek to offer educative resources as well as entertainment.
Intrinsic motivation is key in understanding consumer behaviour. While associated with generic tourism motivation, these can be linked to dark tourism.
Seeking behaviour is associated with educational desires. Individuals wish to seek knowledge and/or connect with particular sites.
Seeking behaviour is also associated with psychological desires. Individuals wish to seek sites where curiosity desires can be satisfied.
Individuals of post-modernity accept commodification and may be searching for visuals, as opposed to authenticity.
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Escaping behaviour is associated with psychological desires. Psychoanalysts agree certain behaviours like voyeurism and curiosity are innate and people wish to satisfy these desires as everyday life forbids them.
These psychological desires exist within everyone.
The intrinsic motivations are strictly dependent on one another.
The media and DT are significantly interconnected, more so than initially believed
The media are renowned for conveying messages globally to consumers who will visit sites based on their internal desires. Therefore, visitor motivations will significantly differ at sites and yet managers should recognise the prominence in promoting their sites accordingly. Problems may persist in the inappropriate promotion of locations, attracting visitors that are not suited to the site, such as heritage seekers to those entertainments orientated or falsely advertising the sites purpose. The above problems have led to the following recommendations, aimed to be considered by site managers and should result in the promotion of suitable sites attracting appropriate visitors based on what they are seeking.
1.3 Recommendations for Policies and Practice Education
Education is imperative in DT and as it remains an influence of motivation, it should remain essential concerning supply. Managers of battlefield sites should comply with the Governmental policies and engage in educating children about the cultural heritage of our nation. Teaching children and encouraging engagement with the past may inspire a connection between them and a distant history, resulting in the prevention of unjust actions occurring again in the future (Teye & Timonthy, 2004) and also improve appreciation for the present day.
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Therefore, dark touristic sites, especially those with regards to our nation's history, should allow for education as their utmost priority.
Commodification
Secondly, tourism is growing as a global industry which should lead to managers considering the commodification of their sites. Using the SoI (Figure 2), managers can gauge their positioning regarding darkness by their site characteristics. Those considered paler such as dark fun factories will benefit significantly from attributes that advance entertainment values, such as restaurants, interactive games and shops. However, sites that have high levels of sensitivity such as natural disaster sites, sites of genocide and violence should remain low on tourism infrastructure.
Managers need to be aware of the contrasts evident in internal desires and, therefore, sites attracting visitors in search of authentication should adopt low infrastructure in an attempt to provide reality. Commodification allows less scope for sensitivity and authenticity and sites that hold remains of significant historic structures should be the focus of an aim dedicated to preserving and protecting them, with little touristic changes made. However, post-modernity highlights the acceptance of commodification and particular sites may benefit from educating visitors in a commodified way, using resources that bring the past to the present and increasing familiarity. For example, virtual reality, whereby customers can experience real events of the past in modern ways. Market research will enable managers to gather data based on what visitors are searching for and orientate and promote accordingly.
Media
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consume more media. Therefore, sites that demand more funding, for example museums or historical structures, should appeal through the media regarding charity, engaging the interest of younger generations in an appeal to preserve the future.
Funding will also help maintain low infrastructure around sites that are be kept authentic rather than increasing superficiality, considering those with direct connections to the sites and those pursuing reality. The media feeds the fascination with death that individuals possess and individuals are subsequently satisfied with the death that the media feeds. The interest and interpretation of events associated with death are dependent on the ability of the media to report instantly; therefore, a communicable relationship between the media and dark sites remains crucial. Additionally, if DT sites and the media invigorated locations of death and disaster in a way that appealed for funding education schemes or towards preserving the site; then society may be more dedicated towards preserving the past and protecting our future.
These recommendations stem from the findings of the review and are for the consideration of managers. However limitations are:
The failure to acknowledge extrinsic motivations as an influence of tourism. Unlike intrinsic motivations which are evident within the individual, extrinsic motivations are concerned with external rewards. Managers should wish to take further thought into this aspect of motivation when considering consumer behaviour and as a result, the supply of sites.
These recommendations focus mainly on education which should not influence managers into believing that psychological desires are loathed as curiosity exists within everyone and is fundamental as a drive for learning.
Conclusion
1.1 Past Research into a Conceptual Framework
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perhaps for more than one. This model is open to interpretation and the drawing together and linking of key points communicated in this piece, allows the attempt of increasing the understanding of this review:
Dark sites allow for media intervention and the media’s intervention influences tourists to these sites. The susceptibility towards what is shown on the media is related to internal desires.
Psychological desires found in tourism literature can be synthesised to DT motives and are embedded in tourists, these influence fascination with death and therefore drive motivation.
Authenticity is linked closely to heritage, of which is discussed as an educational desire. People wish to seek reality and connect with the past. Authenticity also allows for intellect.
Curiosity leads to people seeking education.
Educational desires are not embedded in people however people attain desires to learn which can boost ones ego and therefore drive motivation.
Heritage and the past are important in terms of educational desires.
Education on the past can lead to protecting the future.
A fascination with death exists within people and therefore the media feeds this.
Dark sites allow for educational desires to be satisfied and developed and this is encouraged for the future.
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Figure 3 Source: Author (2016)
A Conceptual Framework
Voyeurism
Authenticity
Curiosity
Heritage
The Past
Sense of Belonging
MEDIA
DARK
TOURISTIC SITES
PSY
CH
OLO
G
ICAL
DESIRES (Escaping)
EDUCATIONAL
DES
IRES
(Se
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1.2 A Conceptual Framework into Future Research
This framework neglects social groups, in particular, those of a certain age and gender. Age has been briefly discussed with regards to the Government’s acknowledgment of encouraging cultural heritage education in schools. However, to gain more findings on the benefits of educating the younger generations and its exertions in preventing unjust actions in the future, additional research is required. Education has been claimed the most fundamental element to consider in DT so the benefits of learning from a young age at what age educational desires lie more within, should be proposed for further research. Gender may also play an important role in the understanding of what motivates dark tourists to these sites; therefore studies should be conducted that aim to explore the relationship between girls, boys and visitation.
This review suggests two desires that promote motivation towards visiting these sites and yet little is known about which one is stronger in influencing individuals. If psychological desires are stronger in terms of motivating, voyeuristic behaviour may be impossible to moderate. Understandably, gaining information through psychoanalysis remains challenging and yet the imperativeness of gaining such information should persist as it will benefit both the supply of sites and how the media portrays certain events. Theory of intrinsic motivation is not commonly found associated with DT, therefore, to improve the reliability of this review more future research should focus on a deeper exploration between generic tourist motivations and those of a dark tourist. This conceptual framework highlights the need of future research and yet some gaps exist with DT literature that identifies further areas of research.
1.3 Gaps in Dark Tourism Literature
A gap in dark tourism literature is the use of theorisation. A lot of studies have been conducted and a lot of conflicting findings have been presented, which results in confusion about the topic and the existence of unanswered questions. Theorising will help locate common themes, and result in more unambiguous theories on the subject that researchers can refer too. Not many frameworks exist as illustrations of theorising and yet those that do are beneficial for researchers. Despite critiques of the SoI and MoSD, they provide a basis for further exploration and yet a framework that synthesises the two could be advantageous.
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Eastern World is unstudied with regards to dark tourism, for example many Asian countries, whereby more motivational contribution can add to the existing research. Other fascinations may exist, such as criminality, equally forbidden from everyday life and an unexplored area of motivation.
The analysis of qualitatively rich literature and studies has allowed the contribution towards an understanding of less visible intrinsic motivational drivers synthesised to those of DT. The conceptual themes are motivation and media. Educational and psychological desires are fundamental to understanding why individuals consume DT and, therefore, managers of sites can consider the motives behind their consumers and how, the already acclaimed relationship with the media, can push towards satisfying both educational and psychological desires of individuals. Greater consideration should be for encouraging educational desires as an example of seeking; which stands as a key motivational force. Education stands as a focus for dark touristic sites, redeeming it of its taboo nature and encouraging cultural heritage whereby connection with the past will inspire preventing unjust actions in the future.
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Acknowledgements
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Page | 31 Appendix
Relevant studies
Author Sample/Methodologies Summary Key findings
Foley & Lennon (1996)
An examination of the treatment of JFK in the following sites:
The New Museum at the JFK Library, Boston
Massachusetts The Sixth Floor,
Dallas Texas The Eternal Flame,
Arlington National Cemetery,
Arlington Virginia
An exploration into DT with evidence
stemming from the sites associated with the life and death of JFK.
The media has a central role in the development of this phenomenon, and the
documentation of this event via newspapers and news has been central too much of the
interpretation.
McIntosh (1999) 1200 domestic
tourists
3 attractions: Blists Hill Open Air Museum
The Black Country Museum
New Lanark World Heritage Village Two stage
approach to data collection Qualitative
methodologies Explanatory
in-depth one-one interviews with 40 tourists
Observations In-depth interviews Structured
interviews on 1200 tourists
Combined with quantitative methods
A mixed method approach used to understand the value of heritage from the perspective of a customer.
The personal interests of each tourist influenced their cognitive insight gained. Across the 3 attractions, specific visitor influencing factors were found to be: age, education and background.
Beech (2000) Qualitative
methods Observations
An analysis into Buchenwald
Concentration Camp from visitor’s perception and as a
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Buchenwald Concentration camp as focus.
tourist attraction based upon observation.
This classification is based upon heritage.
Blom (2000) Althorp, Princess
Diana’s death as focus
Examination of the literature
surrounding accidents and sudden deaths. Theoretical and
empirical. Based upon the
examination of literature and also conversations with residents of Great Brington.
An insight into what influences people in visiting the direct locations of tragedies and deaths
The media play an integral in
influencing visitors to sites associated with sudden death.
Lennon & Foley (2010)
The House of the Wannsee
Conference focused on. Site consists of an exhibition, educational departments and libraries.
Visitors attend for the educational facilities present.
Alderman (2002) Secondary
empirical research Explores the idea of
visitors as ‘authors’. Looking into
themes of inscriptions.
Graceland-the final resting place of singer Elvis Presley is
explored, particularly the practices of visitors inscribing messages on the wall outside.
Several discourses evident as ways of representing the image of Elvis: Elvis as the American Dream, as sex and romance, as food and consumption, as family.
Graceland is a place of cultural, religious heritage.
Ashworth (2002) Qualitative
Methods used are unclear, mentions visitors from 1960’s-70;s, therefore may indicate secondary research
The experience of Krakow-Kazimierz
Debates the demand for atrocity heritage under the ‘horror argument’ and ‘empathy argument’. Place identity is discussed in terms of three
Page | 33 World-wide Jewish community, the wider Polish nation and existing local inhabitants.
Austin (2002) Cape Coast Castle
167 participants at random selection 57 Africans 40
African-Americans 70 Caucasians Qualitative Observations Questionnaires Interviews,
covering most themes evident in questionnaires Non participant
observations
Cape Coast Castle was chosen to represent the symbol of heritage.
Visitors wanted to learn about the site. 60% of all Caucasians had the desire to learn more about the site and events associated with it. African-Americans found a sense of belonging.
Strange & Kempa (2003)
Alcatraz and Robben Island as focus
Empirical and qualitative content Observations Tourist surveys Semi-structured
interviews with both visitors and staff.
30 employees were interviews
Recruited through snowballing method. Questionnaires
administered and distributed to a non-random sample of 1, 008 tourists.
A comparative analysis on these two sites, gaining an insight from visitors and staff perspectives.
At Alcatraz, ranger’s duty is concerned with educating tourists who previous expectations are influenced by the commercialisation of ‘The Rock’. Robben Island is visited for educational purposes, especially fixated upon Nelson Mandela and secondarily to explore African history and culture.
Yuill (2003) Qualitative
Holocaust
Museum-Houston
To gain a better conception of motivators at the
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186 surveys Questionnaires to
tourists and resident visitors Focus group with
museum staff A mailed out
questionnaire
Holocaust Museum-Houston
The relationship between DT and media is strongly connected.
Kingsbury & Brunn (2004)
Examined contents of 11 travel and leisure magazines published between late 2001 and early 2002.
Events of 9/11 Examined themes,
phrases, images and words.
An exploration into the major sources of information about destinations, drawing on work of Freud, it also offers an utilisation of
psychoanalytic theory in tourism studies.
An overlap of media and psychoanalysis of behaviour. Terrorism as a symptom-symptom is saturated with unconscious desire and enjoyment because of the ‘ego’. The relationship between tourism research and psychoanalytic approaches in social theory.
Dann (2005) Qualitative
Test hypothesis Worldwide examples from films, television, advertising and print media examined.
DT is media driven and targeted at the young or the tourist as a child.
Media is largely responsible for converting scenes of violence into commodified tourist attractions. Even if attractions in the past appear tasteless, there is an increase in demand in order to meet the childlike curiosity surrounding mortality.
Robb (2009) Cross regional
approach Sites in: Rwanda Argentina United States Brazil
The aesthetics of these sites are explored as well as the experiences of visitors in an attempt to contribute to the exploration of the
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relationship between tourism and violence.
cheap thrills and those who wish to witness violence of the past and present.
Stone (2010) Interpretivist
approach Observations Semi-structured
interviews Survey research Focus groups 21%
respondents-The London Dungeon
22% respondents-Body Worlds Exhibition 24% respondents
WTC visitor centre 33%
respondents-Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial Museum
A multiple case study design, looking into the World Trade Centre (at Ground Zero). Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum & Memorial, Body Worlds and London Dungeon
High proportion of education related visits to Body Worlds Exhibition and Auschwitz. Primary motivations in visiting Body Worlds Exhibitions-to satisfy curiosity. At Ground Zero was to pay respects and the primary motivator being education when visiting Auschwitz.
Biran et al (2011) 198 participants Both domestic and
international tourists, aged over 15.
Auschwitz-Birkenau Semi-structured
interviews
Purposive sampling to achieve diverse responses
Theme identifies from interviews. Structured
questionnaires Personal interviews
and questionnaires Quasi-random
sampling.
Intention of revealing the motives behind visiting atrocity sites in general but
Auschwitz specifically.
Three factors found in why people visited: 1st,
‘see it to believe it’, 2nd entailed
‘learning and understanding’ 3rd, ‘famous
deaths and attractions and finally 4th,
‘emotional heritage experience’. Overall, education remained the reason for visitation. Motivated with the desire for education or to receive an emotional experience.
Kang et al (2011) Quantitative Qualitative
research
The case of Jeju Peace Park in Korea, visitors participated in gathering an
Page | 36
46 semi-structured interviews
Questionnaires
understanding of key motivators Other reasons included: personal learning, curiosity and general education. Mowatt & Chancellor (2011)
14 individuals, pre and post travels Cape Coast Castle Qualitative Interviews Narrative analysis Reflections
Data collected from visitor’s pre and post visits to Cape Coast Castle and compared to other coastal castle narrative analysis.
The main desire attained from visitors was a better
understanding of heritage. Wanted to be known as travellers on a pilgrimage as opposed to ‘tourists’.
Buda & McIntosh (2014)
One tourists experience Qualitative Interviews
An analysis to
examine one tourist’s experience of
imprisonment in Iran, in order to analyse voyeuristic
experiences of a dark.
Tourism can be experienced as ‘dark’ through consumption and actions
surrounding danger. The more the media shared of dangerous sites, the
increased urged to visit.
While voyeuristic behaviour was not admitted, it was claimed people act upon this.
Isaac & Cakmak (2014)
Former transit camp-Westerbork 54.6% female 45.5% male Aged 31-40
68.5% had attained degree
26% visited before Self-administered
questionnaire 20 visit motivations
on a Likert Scale 238 randomly
selected Dutch visitors
Questionnaires administered to identify purpose of trip, perceptions and why the site should be visited.
An ordered logit model examined the characteristics of respondents across their motivational drivers: Age, gender, education level, income level, and
frequency of visit. Less educated correlated with higher
Page | 37
more highly educated correlated with ‘conscience’ as a motivational factor.
![Figure 2 Source: Stone (2006) [sic] Spectrum of Intensity](https://thumb-us.123doks.com/thumbv2/123dok_es/5779123.142612/6.892.204.713.308.890/figure-source-stone-sic-spectrum-intensity.webp)
