clinical practice
Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Emeran A. Mayer, M.D.
From the Center for Neurobiology of Stress, Division of Digestive Diseases, Depart-ments of Medicine, Physiology, and Psy-chiatry, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles. Address reprint requests to Dr. Mayer at the University of California, Los Angeles, Peter Ueberroth Bldg., Ste. 2338 F, 10945 Leconte Ave., Los Angeles, CA 90095-6949, or at emayer@ucla.edu.
N Engl J Med 2008;358:1692-9.
Copyright © 2008 Massachusetts Medical Society.
A 28-year-old woman presents with a 7-month history of recurrent, crampy pain in the left lower abdominal quadrant, bloating with abdominal distention, and fre-quent, loose stools. She reports having had similar but milder symptoms since child-hood. She spends long times in the bathroom because she is worried about uncon-trollable discomfort and fecal soiling if she does not completely empty her bowels before leaving the house. She feels anxious and fatigued and is frustrated that her previous physician did not seem to take her distress seriously. Physical examination is unremarkable except for tenderness over the left lower quadrant. How should her case be evaluated and treated?
The Clinical Problem
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), characterized by chronically recurring abdominal pain or discomfort and altered bowel habits, is one of the most common syndromes seen by gastroenterologists and primary care providers, with a worldwide prevalence of 10 to 15%.1 In the absence of detectable organic causes, IBS is referred to as a functional disorder, which is defined by symptom-based diagnostic criteria known as the “Rome criteria” (Table 1).2
IBS is one of several functional gastrointestinal disorders (including functional dyspepsia); these other functional disorders are frequently seen in patients with IBS,3 as are other pain disorders, such as fibromyalgia, chronic pelvic pain, and inter-stitial cystitis.4,5 Coexisting psychological conditions are also common, primarily anxiety, somatization, and symptom-related fears (e.g., “I am worried that I will have severe discomfort during the day if I don’t empty my bowels completely in the morning”); these contribute to impairments in quality of life6 and excessive use of health care associated with IBS.7
Symptoms characteristic of IBS are common in population-based samples of healthy persons. However, only 25 to 50% of persons with such symptoms (typi-cally those with more frequent or severe abdominal pain) seek medical care.1 Longitudinal studies suggest substantial fluctuations in symptoms over time. In a population-based longitudinal study over a period of 12 years, 55% of subjects who initially reported symptoms of IBS did not report these symptoms at the time of the final survey.3 Although the IBS symptoms resolved in the majority of subjects, transitions to other complexes of gastrointestinal symptoms, such as functional dyspepsia, were also observed.
Symptoms of IBS (or other related functional gastrointestinal symptoms) fre-quently date back to childhood; the estimated prevalence of IBS in children is similar to that in adults.8 The female-to-male ratio is 2:1 in most population-based samples and is higher among those who seek health care.4 IBS-like symptoms de-velop in approximately 10% of adult patients after bacterial or viral enteric infections;
This Journal feature begins with a case vignette highlighting a common clinical problem. Evidence supporting various strategies is then presented, followed by a review of formal guidelines,
risk factors for the development of postinfectious IBS include female sex, a longer duration of gas-troenteritis, and the presence of psychosocial factors (including a major life stress at the time of infection and somatization).9 Both initial pre-sentations and exacerbations of IBS symptoms are often preceded by major psychological stress-ors1 or by physical stressors (e.g., gastrointestinal infection).9
Given the direct association between symp-toms of IBS and stress, the frequent coexisting psychiatric conditions,10 and the responsiveness of symptoms in many persons to therapies di-rected at the central nervous system, IBS is often described as a “brain–gut disorder,” although its pathophysiology remains uncertain. Alterations in gastrointestinal motility and in the balance of absorption and secretion in the intestines may underlie irregularities in bowel habits,1 and these abnormalities may be mediated in part by dys-regulation of the gut-based serotonin signaling system.11 Increased perception of visceral stimuli may contribute to abdominal pain and discom-fort.12 Preliminary reports suggest that altera-tions in immune activation of the mucosa1,9 and in intestinal microflora13 may contribute to symp-toms of IBS, yet a causative role remains to be established.
S tr ategies and Ev idence
Evaluation
According to current clinical guidelines,1,2,14,15 IBS can generally be diagnosed without additional testing beyond a careful history taking, a general physical examination, and routine laboratory studies (not including colonoscopy) in patients who have symptoms that meet the Rome criteria
(Table 1) and who do not have warning signs. These warning signs include rectal bleeding, anemia, weight loss, fever, family history of colon cancer, onset of the first symptom after 50 years of age, and a major change in symptoms. Pa-tients should be asked about the specifics of their bowel habits and stool characteristics; on the ba-sis of this information, they can be subclassified as having diarrhea-predominant IBS, constipation-predominant IBS, or mixed bowel habits.2
In patients who meet the Rome criteria and have no warning signs, the differential diagnosis includes celiac sprue (Fig. 1), microscopic and collagenous colitis and atypical Crohn’s disease for patients with diarrhea-predominant IBS, and chronic constipation (without pain) for those with constipation-predominant IBS. A relation-ship between symptoms and food intake, as well as possible triggers for the onset of symptoms (e.g., gastrointestinal infection or marked stress-ors) should be assessed, since this may guide treatment recommendations. In addition, atten-tion should be paid to symptoms that suggest other functional gastrointestinal and somatic pain disorders and psychological conditions often associated with IBS.
Clinical experience suggests that accepting the patient’s symptoms and distress as real, and not simply as a manifestation of excessive worrying and somatization, and providing the patient with a plausible model of the disease (e.g., “brain–gut disorder”) facilitates the establishment of a posi-tive patient–doctor relationship. Evidence sug-gests that an approach that includes acknowl-edging the disease, educating the patient about the disease, and reassuring the patient may im-prove the treatment outcome.19 Physical exami-nation frequently reveals tenderness in the left Table 1. The Rome Diagnostic Criteria for Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS).*
Recurrent abdominal pain or discomfort at least 3 days per month for the past 3 months, associated with two or more of the following:
Improvement with defecation
Onset associated with a change in frequency of stool Onset associated with a change in form (appearance) of stool
* Data are from Longstreth et al.2 Criteria must have been fulfilled for the past 3 months, with symptom onset at least
lower quadrant over a palpable sigmoid colon. A rectal examination is warranted to rule out rec-tal disease and abnormal function of the ano-rectal sphincter (e.g., paradoxical pelvic-floor con-traction during a defecation attempt), which may contribute to symptoms of constipation.
Pharmacologic Treatment
Symptomatic treatment (usually aimed at normal-izing bowel habits or decreasing abdominal pain) by a reassuring health care provider typically provides relief for patients with mild symptoms who are seen in primary care settings.20 However,
33p9
Rome criteria Appropriate symptom-guided evaluation
Patient with recurrent abdominal pain or discomfort and altered bowel habit
Serologic testing for celiac sprue Warning signs
Rectal bleeding Anemia Weight loss Fever
Family history of colon cancer Onset of first symptom after 50 yr of age Major change in symptoms
Further evaluation needed Complete cell count Blood chemical studies Measurement of thyrotropin
levels
Stool testing for occult blood and ova and parasites
Colonoscopy and other symptom-guided diagnostic testing No further evaluation Full evaluation forceliac sprue
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IBS diagnosis confirmed
Figure 1. Differential Diagnosis.
Testing for celiac sprue may be useful in patients who meet the Rome criteria16 (especially in those with
diarrhea-predominant IBS), in patients who have warning signs, and in populations in which the prevalence of celiac sprue is high.17 If there are no warning signs, then basic blood counts, serum biochemical studies, stool testing for occult
blood and ova and parasites, and measurement of thyrotropin levels are indicated only if there is a supportive clinical history.18 Colonoscopy is recommended only in patients who have warning signs. However, according to screening
the treatment of patients who have more severe symptoms remains challenging. Only a small number of pharmacologic and psychological treat-ments are supported by well-designed random-ized, controlled trials involving patients with IBS. Treatment of IBS with currently available drugs usually is targeted to the management of indi-vidual symptoms, such as constipation, diarrhea, and abdominal pain (Table 2).
Constipation
In clinical practice, osmotic laxatives are often useful in the treatment of constipation, although they have not been studied in clinical trials spe-cifically involving patients with IBS. Fiber and other bulking agents have also been used as initial therapy for constipation. However, the frequent side effects (in particular, an increase in bloating) and inconsistent, largely negative results of trials of dietary fiber in the treatment of IBS have de-creased the use of this approach.22
Tegaserod, a partial 5-hydroxytryptamine4
(5-HT4 )–receptor agonist, has been shown in
ran-domized, clinical trials to be moderately effective for global relief of symptoms in patients with IBS. In an analysis of eight randomized trials, patients assigned to tegaserod were 20% more likely to have global relief of symptoms than those assigned to placebo, with a number needed to treat of 17 to achieve clinically significant global relief. However, marketing of tegaserod was suspended in March 2007, when an analysis of the data from clinical trials identified a significant increase in the num-ber of cardiovascular ischemic events (myocardial infarction, stroke, and unstable angina) in patients taking the drug (13 events in 11,614 patients) as compared with those receiving placebo (1 event in 7031 patients); all events occurred in patients with known cardiovascular disease, cardiovascular risk factors, or both.23 In July 2007, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved an investigational-new-drug program for tegaserod with access restricted to women younger than 55 years of age who have constipation-predominant IBS (or chronic constipation) without known cardiovascu-lar problems.21
Diarrhea
Although data from randomized trials of tradi-tional antidiarrheal agents in patients with diar-rhea-predominant IBS are lacking, clinical
expe-rience indicates that these agents are generally effective. Regular use of low doses (e.g., 2 mg of loperamide every morning or twice a day) seems to be effective for the treatment of otherwise un-controllable diarrhea and may decrease patients’ anxiety about uncontrollable urgency and fecal soiling.
In large, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials involving patients with diarrhea-predominant IBS, the 5-HT3–receptor antagonist alosetron at a dose of 1 mg twice a day for 12 weeks decreased stool frequency and bowel ur-gency, relieved abdominal pain and discomfort, improved scores for global IBS symptoms (i.e., adequate relief of IBS symptoms), and improved health-related quality of life.24 Based on phase 2 trials suggesting that efficacy might be limited to female patients, subsequent trials for FDA ap-proval included only women, and FDA apap-proval was limited to female patients with diarrhea-predominant IBS. A later study showed efficacy in men as well, although the indication has not been approved by the FDA.25
In pooled analyses of female patients, alose-tron was associated with an odds ratio for ade-quate relief of pain or global relief of symptoms of 1.8 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.6 to 2.1; number needed to treat for adequate symptom relief, 7.3). However, the FDA has restricted the use of the drug because of rare but serious ad-verse effects occurring in both clinical trials and post-marketing studies, including complications from constipation (ileus, bowel obstruction, fecal impaction, and perforation; combined prevalence, 0.10% in the alosetron group vs. 0.06% in the placebo group [from clinical trials dating up to 2000])26 and ischemic colitis (prevalence, 0.15% in the alosetron group vs. 0.06% in the placebo group). Thus, alosetron is indicated only for wom-en with severe diarrhea-predominant IBS who have had symptoms for at least 6 months and who have not had a response to conventional therapies (in particular, antidiarrheal agents).
Abdominal Pain
Ta bl e 2. Medications Used in the Treatment of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS).* Symptoms and Medication Initial Dose Target Dose Common or Serious Side Effects Evidence FDA-Approved Constipation mg/day † For the Symptom
For IBS
For
the
Symptom
For IBS
Tricyclic antidepressant medications are com-monly used for IBS symptoms, often in low doses (e.g., 10 to 75 mg of amitriptyline). Hypothesized mediators of their effects include antihyperalge-sia, improvement in sleep, normalization of gas-trointestinal transit,27 and when used at higher doses (e.g., 100 mg or more at bedtime), treat-ment of coexisting depression and anxiety. De-spite their frequent use in practice, data on the efficacy of tricyclic antidepressants in patients with IBS are inconsistent. Two meta-analyses (in-cluding 11 randomized, controlled trials) showed that low-to-moderate doses of tricyclic antide-pressants significantly reduced pain and overall symptoms in patients with IBS,1,28,29 but the analyses have been criticized for the inclusion of studies that enrolled subjects with functional dyspepsia. A third meta-analysis that excluded these studies showed that tricyclic antidepres-sants were not superior to placebo.15
In the largest published randomized, placebo-controlled trial to date, treatment with desipra-mine (with an escalating dose from 50 to 150 mg) was not superior to placebo in intention-to-treat analyses. However, a secondary analysis (per pro-tocol) limited to patients with detectable plasma levels of desipramine showed a significant bene-fit over placebo.30 These patients presumably ad-hered better to the protocol. Also, given the high dose of desipramine that was studied, it is un-clear whether reported improvement in IBS symp-toms was secondary to treatment of coexisting depression or anxiety. Effects of tricyclic antide-pressants on sensitivity to somatic pain31 and sleep suggest that they may have particular bene-fit in patients with IBS who have widespread somatic pain or who sleep poorly, although this has not been studied explicitly.
Several small, randomized, controlled trials suggest that selective serotonin-reuptake inhibi-tors may have beneficial effects in patients with IBS, most commonly on measures of general well-being and, in some studies, on abdominal pain.32 However, it remains unclear whether a lessening of depression or anxiety explains the benefits. Although serotonin–norepinephrine re-uptake inhibitors (duloxetine and venlafaxine) have been shown to be effective in reducing pain in other chronic pain conditions, including fibro-myalgia,11 data from randomized, controlled trials of their role in the treatment of IBS are lacking.
There is a high prevalence of coexisting anxi-ety in patients with IBS. Nevertheless, benzodiaz-epines are not recommended for long-term therapy because of the risk of habituation and the potential for dependency.8
Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy
Cognitive–behavioral therapy (a combination of cognitive and behavioral techniques) is the best-studied psychological treatment for IBS.15,33 Cog-nitive techniques (typically administered in a group or an individual format in 4 to 15 sessions) are aimed at changing catastrophic or maladap-tive thinking patterns underlying the perception of somatic symptoms.1,34 Behavioral techniques aim to modify dysfunctional behaviors through relaxation techniques, contingency management (rewarding healthy behaviors), or assertion train-ing. Some randomized, controlled trials have also shown reductions in IBS symptoms with the use of gut-directed hypnosis (aimed at improving gut function), which involves relaxation, change in beliefs, and self-management.33,35
Data from head-to-head comparisons of chotherapy with pharmacotherapy for IBS or psy-chotherapy plus pharmacotherapy with pharma-cotherapy alone are lacking. The magnitude of improvement that has been reported with psycho-logical treatments seems to be similar to or great-er than that reported with medications studied specifically for bowel symptoms in IBS, although comparisons are limited by, among other things, the lack of a true placebo control in trials of psychotherapies. In a meta-analysis of 17 random-ized trials of cognitive treatments, behavioral treatments, or both for IBS (including hypnosis), as compared with control treatments (including waiting list, symptom monitoring, and usual med-ical treatment), those patients who were random-ly assigned to cognitive–behavioral therapy were significantly more likely to have a reduction in gastrointestinal symptoms of at least 50% (odds ratio, 12; 95% CI, 6 to 260),33 and the estimated number needed to treat with cognitive–behavioral therapy or hypnotherapy for one patient to have improvement was estimated to be two.33
Ar e as of Uncertaint y
restrict-ed-access programs for the newer pharmacother-apies for diarrhea-predominant IBS and constipa-tion-predominant IBS.
Limited data from small, randomized, con-trolled trials have suggested benefits of nonab-sorbable antibiotics36 (400 mg of rifaximin three times a day), and probiotics,37,38 particularly for symptoms of gas and bloating. More data are needed from larger, high-quality randomized, controlled trials that assess the effects of these and other therapies, including antidepressant agents, and provide information on factors that may predict responsiveness to these therapies. Lubiprostone (24 μg twice a day) has been ap-proved by the FDA for the treatment of chronic constipation and was recently shown to be effec-tive in the treatment of constipation-predominant IBS.39 The roles of this agent and other new treatments for constipation and global relief of symptoms (e.g., linaclotide40) in constipation-predominant IBS remain to be established.
Guidelines
Guidelines for the management of IBS have been issued by the American Gastroenterological Asso-ciation,1 by the American College of Gastroenter-ology,15 by the Rome Foundation,2 and by the Brit-ish Society of Gastroenterology.14 Because of the limited data from randomized trials involving pa-tients with IBS, these guidelines are based large-ly on consensus opinion. My recommendations are generally consistent with these guidelines.
Summ ary and R ecommendations
In patients such as the woman in the vignette, who present with symptoms suggestive of IBS, including chronic abdominal pain and discomfort associated with diarrhea, the first step in evalua-tion is a careful history taking to rule out warn-ing signs, includwarn-ing unexplained weight loss and hematochezia. In the absence of any warning signs, the diagnosis usually can be made clini-cally without the need for further testing (Fig. 1). I would also determine whether a gastrointestinal infection or any major life event preceded the re-cent flare of symptoms, since these are common triggers of IBS.
Clinical experience suggests that mild symp-toms may be managed effectively by symptomatic treatment of altered bowel habits (e.g., antidiar-rheal agents or laxatives). I find it helpful to make it clear to the patient that I accept his or her symptoms as real and to provide a patho-physiological explanation of symptoms.
For severe diarrhea, as in the case described, I typically recommend starting a low daily dose of loperamide (2 to 4 mg every morning, noting that this can be increased if the patient has a particularly important activity), with the expecta-tion that this treatment may also decrease anxi-ety about having uncontrollable bowel movements during the day. Although the data from random-ized trials are conflicting with regard to the role of tricyclic antidepressant agents in patients with IBS, I would also consider this therapy (e.g., ami-triptyline, starting at a dose of 10 mg at bedtime and gradually, over a period of several weeks, increasing to the maximum tolerated dose, but not higher than 75 mg at bedtime), making it clear to the patient that low-dose therapy is not aimed at altering mood but rather is aimed at reducing IBS symptoms, including abdominal pain. I would recommend participation in a cog-nitive–behavioral therapy program (ideally in the form of a brief, self-administered program),34 although there are no data showing that the com-bination of cognitive–behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy is superior to either treatment alone in cases of IBS. If symptoms failed to im-prove sufficiently in this patient with diarrhea, I would discuss with her the potential addition of alosetron, but with attention to its potential for rare serious adverse effects, including ischemic colitis.14
Supported by grants (P50 DK64539, R24 AT002681, R01 DK48351, and R01 DK58173) from the National Institutes of Health.
Dr. Mayer reports receiving research support from Glaxo-SmithKline, Novartis, and Avera and consulting fees from Boeh-ringer Ingelheim, Johnson & Johnson, Prometheus, Dannon, and Nestlé. No other potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.
I thank Teresa Olivas and Cathy Liu for invaluable assistance in preparing the manuscript, and Lin Chang, Douglas Dross-man, Jeff Lackner, and Brennan Spiegel for valuable com-ments.
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Copyright © 2008 Massachusetts Medical Society.
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