2 Trends in Food Engineering

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Abstract 16

2.1 Constraints, Context, and Reasons for Innovation , 16

2.1.1 How Innovative is the Food Industry? 16

2.1.2 What Are the Reasons for Innovation? , 18

2.2 Technological Trends ,' 18

2.2.1 Emerging Processing and Preservation Methods 18

2.2.2 Biotechnology ,' 19

2.3 Food Manufacturing Operations 22

2.3.1 What are Food Manufacturing Operations? 22

2.3.2 Can We Define Food Manufacturing Unit Operations? 23 2.3.3 Characteristic Features of Food Manufacturing Operations 23

2.4 Autornatic Control. 25

2.5 Advances in Tools and Concepts in Food Engineering ..':' 26

2.5.1 Tools and Concepts in Product Design 26

2.5.2 Tools and Concepts in Process Design 28

2.5.3 Tools and Concepts in Plant Operation 30

2.6 What Challenges Exist for Food EngineeringL 31

2.6.1 Integrating Rapid Progress in Biology into Food Engineering 31 2.6.2 Integrating Progress in Physico-Chemistry into Food

Engineering 31

2.6.3 Integrate More Mechanization in Food Engineering 32 2.6.4 Use a More Functional Approach in the Design of New

Products and Processes 32

2.6.5 Use More Mathematics to Integrate More Complexity 32 2.6.6 Better Integration of the Human Factor in Plant Design and

Operation 33

2.6.7 Can We Integrate AH Scales? 33

References 33

CONTEN1S

G.

Trystram

j.

l.

Bimbenet

Trends

In

Food

Engi neeri ng

2

3. FAO/WHO. 1992. International Conference on Nutrition. Nutrition and Develop-ment-A Global Assessrnent, Food and Agriculture OrganizationIWorld Health Orga-nization, Rome, Italy.

4. Wotkei, C.E.1998. Impacts of diet on health inNorthAmeríca, inCreating Healthful FoodSystems: Linking Agrieulturelo HumanNeeds. G. F.Cornbs, Jr. and R. M. Welch, eds. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University,

5. James, C. 1998. Global review of commercialized transgenic CfOpS: 1998, Interna-tional Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech.Applications.Brief No. 8. Ithaca, NY.

6. Leistner, L.and L.G.M. Gorris. 1995. "Food preservation by hurdle technology, Trends Food Sei. Teehnol.,6: 41-46.

7. Vega-Mercado, H. et al. 1997. Non-thermal food preservation: P111sedelectric fields, Trends Food Sei. Technol.,8: 151-157.

8. Dunn, J.et al. 1995. P111sedlight treatment of food and paekaging, Food Technol.,

49(9): 95.

9. Barbosa-Cánovas, G.v. et al. 1997.Non-thermal Preservation of Foods.New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Ine.

10. Ahvenianen, R. and E. Hurrne. 1997. Active and smart packaging fOI meeting con-sumer demands for quality and safety, FoodAddit. Contam.,14: 753-763.

11. Morris, C.E. 1998. 1998 survey of food manufacturing trends: A clear direction, Food Eng.,70(3): 77-86.

Reprinted from Reference 11, Copyright 1998,Food Engineering,Cahners Business Information, a División of Reed Elsevier, lne. AH rights reserved.

-,

High Moderate Low

-~

potential potential potential

Ohmic heating 10 36 54

Elcctron beam radiation 27 38 35

Gamma irradiation 33 35 32

High pressure 19 38 43

Radio frequency cooking 17 50 33

Microwave pasteurization/sterilization 37 36 27

Pulsed light 7 44 49

Pulsed electrica! field 4 36 60

COzdrying 18 40 42

Microwave drying 20 43 37

Low-acid aseptic particulars 23 50 27

Magnetic resonance imaging 22 35 43

Predictive process control 44 44 12

"

TABLE 1.8

Cornmercial Potential of New/Unique Process Technologies (Percent of Respondents Familiar with Each Technologv)

Engineering and Food for the 21st Century

• There have been few new unit operations, except extrusion cooking, membrane separations, irradiation, high-pressure treatrnents, and, in a

sense, manufacturingoperations.

• Sorne new processes have been required to make new products (i.e.,

preparedsalads,newcompositedesserts,osmo-dehydrated products,etc.) andnewoperations(membranes, extrusioncooking).

G Many new techniques are used in unit operations: aseptictechniques, super criticalextraction and osmoticdehydration(bothbeing newforms ofsolvent extraction),ohmicheating,RF heating, water-jetcutting,asso -ciative packaging,image analysis, etc.

introductionof newtechnologiesinthefoodindustriesduringthepast fewdecades, thenumberofrealinnovationsturns outtoberatherlow:

Like other hnman activities indeveloped countries, the foodindustry is asked by society tobe "environmentally correct" concerning air, solid wastes, packages, landscape, andwater.The pressure on water supplies isIikely tobecome amajor

problem in many countries inthe coming years.

Tofulfill all ofthepreviously describéd constraints atthe same time, the food

industry has atendency to split itself into twoentities:

• Firsttransformation industry(e.g., production ofsugar, starch, oils,malr,

e!c.)--close to agriculture and international raw materials markets, making

basic products for consumers and more and more'ingredicnts for thefood industry.

• Second transformation industry-close lOdistribution and consumers, which mixes, assembles, andshapes ingredients tojnake complex products ofvarious origins (ascereals +rneals, dairy+fruits, etc.) This evolution tends to break

thetraditionaJ organization of commodities from fiE;l"dtoconsumers (cereals,

meat, dairy, etc.).The fast-growing activity in food ingredients isevidence of this trend.

On theinternational level, shares arebought and soldat the speed ofelectrons,

often onthe basis ofshort-term profits.Whole cornpanies maysimilarly change

owners inavery short time.

The competition in pricing and quality isincreasing, mainly due to the increasing weight ofdistributíon chains. The increasing pres~re ofretailers pushes industry to modify itsway of distribution. Internet market may become anImportanr

trend.

New challenges arecorning: the food'industry has toestablish anddemonstrate

itsability tocontrol its production in terms ofqnality, ofcourse, butalso, nowadays, moreand more interms of safety, nutritive value, and natural image

of the productoPeople alsorequire more convenience andinformation aboutthe food they buy,

Evolution in the structure ofthe

food industry

Respect for

water, air,and

environment

Shareholders'

power

Disrribution power Consumer

power TABLE2.1

Constraints and Context of Evolution in the Food Industries

17 TrendsinFoodEngineering

Figure 2.1 Sorneimportantsteps fortheevolutionofobjectivesandrequirementsinthefood industries.

---

Mechaniza

--

rion

~

--

---

~~

---

Control sc

--

ienc

--

e

--

---

~

Hygiene

Safety Health foods

Fresh-like food Increase shelflife Decrease calories

Decrease saturated fat

No trans- fattyacid Reduced sal!and

sugar Morefiber No additives

No preservatives

Antioxydative formulation Productivity

Adaptation of chemical engineering Industrialization

~~~E~n_~_gy_.__

~I~1

Q_n_~_'t___y

~

1

I~

s_a_fu_ty ~ Present and nearfuture

Past

Evolution oiindustrial stepsin the foodindústry

Table 2.1 presents our views of constraints to whichthe food industry is being subjected: Due to the context described here, the food industry has to manage innovatioñto modify andadaptits technologies.Theobjectivesof this adaptation havevariedwith time,as showninFigure 2.1.PresentIy,the accentis placed on safety and on an increase in quality homogeneity. But, when we consider the

2.1.1 How INNOVATlVE 15 THE fOOD INDUSTRV?

l •

2.1 CONSTRAINTS,CONTEXT, AND REASONS FOR INNOVATlON

Technologicalinnovation is presentedasoneof theanswersto the constraintsin the food industry.Examplesof innovationsor research,maínlyinthe fields of preser -vation(thermalandnonthermaltechniques),manufacturing operations (operations onindividual pieces),automaticcontrol,etc.,are presented.New tools andconcepts usedinproduct andprocessdevelopment are described,suchasproduct,material, and reaction engineering. Emphasis is placed on beterogeneous and composite products. Finally,theauthorspresent theirideas aboutchallengestothe food industry incomingyears.

Thefood industryis atthesame time theinstigatorandthe subjectof cbange insociety.Whenthe food industryis subjectedtoseveralkindsofconstraints,ithas tomodifyits structures,andtheseevolutionshave animpactonitstechnology.

Abstract

The use of biotechnology and of biologic steps during processing has increasing importance. Acomprehensive discussion would benecessary to describe this aspect. Sorne of this inforrnation is reported in Reference 2. Table 2.4 summarizes a few

2.2.2 BIOTECHNOLOGY

Also, in theheat processing of food, major improvements canbeprovided using a combination of classical heating methods (convection in-airor Iiquid) and new

technologies as presented in brief in Table 2.3. The way tocombine these technol- .

ogies is not well established at present. Nevertheless, numerous applications ate available,

An interesting point to discuss is the aseptic processing principle. Itmust be

indicated here that itis not realIy a new unit operation orprincipIe of processing, but it is a new set of technologies that permit work to take place in a safe and hygienic climate. Thenextquestiort for such processes that researchers and engineers havetofaceconcems process optimization. Buttheintroduction of thehygiene point of viewprobably will be very important to the future of food industries (see Figure

2.1).

Figure 2.2 Factors inñuencingthesuccessofnew technologies at the industrial level. Legislation

Consumer Scientific

community Tradeunions Acceptance Investmentcost Operation cost Flexibility Reliability Safety

Equipment

Microbiblogy Toxicology Allergy Particulates

1

9

Concurrenttechnologies Trends inFood Engineering

An exhaustive presentation of emerging methods forthe processing offoodproducts

is quite difficult. Inthe case of preservation, sorne points are summarized inTable 2.2. Insorne cases, technologies have already beentransferred toindustry,The main idea for such research is to process food without heat. In fact, in many of these technologies, some heating occurs during processing. Except in sorne specific appl i-cations that are highlighted inTable 2.2, itbecomes obvious that acombination of technologies is preferred.

2.2.1 EMERGINGPROCESSINGAND PRESERVATIONMETHODS

2.2 TECHNOlOGICAlTRENOS

Another important point is the acceptance of the new technology bythe user. It

is obvious that this mechanism of acceptance is not easy to implement, Figure 2.2 represents different points thathave tobe considered during the evaluation of anew technology for industrial purposes.'

• Allhough heat is fue most common method for transformation, sanitatíon, and preservation, itis well known today that the eonsequences of heating arenotneeessarily good for the productoTherefore, nonthermal processing isanimportant objective. On theother hand, the ability toperform aecurate separations of biomolecules becomes more and more important. The con

-sequences ofsuch progress are the lengthening of preservation timeandan increase in theconsumer's perception of the food as being "natural."

• Another driving force for innovation is probably fue attainment of new properties (texture oraroma, for exarnple), which may require new tech -nologies. The design of new products is a matter of competitiveness for industry. In such new products, safety considerations become very im por-tant (Figure 2.1).

• The competition .between companies and the relative ease in fue design of "me-too" products imply firms' increasing focus on technologies involved in the process.

• Innovation is evidently the direct result oí research and development within thefirmoButitisalso theconsequence of research made elsewhere. Transfer from one industrial domain to another is a frequent path of innovation. Screw extrusion was used in the plastics industry before being transferred to thefood industry to beutilized inextrusion cooking. Today, one of fue most promising directions of research and inuovation is ce r-tainly derived from rapid progress made in the field of biology,

A set, probably not exhaustive, of reasons for innovation eonsists of the following:

-,

2.1.2 WHAT ARE THE REASONS FORINNOVATION?

This shows that most of fue existing teclmologies have been inuse for along time; there is more progressive evolution than striking innovation.

,t'.) :.~ ::;1 (1) :::J o, <J>

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Pieces ofproduct areinnnersed in oil _¿.Drying,baking, frying and alahighternperature(180~C). extractionofoil

Precooked prepared meals Tor cold

storage

Themostused method.Thecombinatlonof techniques isiuade to ímproveheattrunsfer.Thetnainwaysloimproveheatuansfer areteincrease CollveX:UÜI1(betterh

_.

eat trans_... fercoefficicnt), introduce controlled radiation_{. .} und.combine steani injectionwíihunexchanger.

Mear,cereal products, fruits,

vegetablcs, andfatproducts

Everyproduct

~

Fruits,meat, fishproducts,and

vegetables

Thinproductpieces Pumpableproducts

Liquidorpiecesofproducís: applicationavailable for in-package products

Puinpable products, even if

particles arepresent Niunerousapplicatlons

Vacuumpermits thereductionof Every kind ofheat Lower temperature temperature, treauneut

Heatingoftightly packagedproducts, Cookingamipastcurizution Quality, safetyandlesslosses Increaseoftransfercoefficient;

controlof impregnationor drying 1Spossiblethroughoperating

conditions

Increaseof transfercoefficient;fast dryíng

Dehydration,soaking,

salting, andpickling

wallsternperature

Baking,dryingandroasting High-intensitydrying;highheating rate

Excellentcontrol ofexchunger Directinsituheating

Heating,pasteurization Electric currentsent inexchanger

walls.

-Superheatedsteam heats theproduct likeahotgas.

Pieces of"product areimmersed ina

concentruted solution; heatedor'001

heated.

Electriccurrentisdirectlyinjected in Heating,pasteurization thepipe;Joule effect, alsoin pieces

of products, if present,

Insituheatgeneration Heatingandíhawing Directin situheating-often

combined with air

Infraredradiationheatsthesurfaces- Heating,s urface treatment, Funetíonof opticalproperties of smallpenetrationdepth. andpasteurization food

°Reat processing improvement cooking

"Sous-vide" Under vacuum

Immersionfrying Immersíon Indirect ohmic

heating

Superheatedsteam Direct ohmic

heating Microwave/high

frequency

Infrared

Products Principie Applications Advantages

lAStE 2.3

New Principies of Heat lreatments

Sterilízatíon,bu! the

principle isnot exactIy known m :::l ~. :::J (1) (1) :::!. :::J (JQ

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:::J o, "TI O O o,

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::¡-(1) N ~ ~ () (1) ;a e

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Disinfection, sterilization Verystrong and fast light pulsations;

effect ofhigh peak powerand broad spectrum of flash;real principIe unknown

High-density pulsed magneticfield provokes adramaticdecreaseof

microorganisms.

A high-electric field is applied.Ifthe

valueishigher than acritica!value,

pores appear inthe cell ruernbranes. Thedeterioration of

membranesisirreversible.

Purnpable foods; packages;inpackagepossible; water processiug

Nontherrnal processing; different effects on parameters suchaspH, ternperature,etc.; Inactivational lower

ternperature, alternauve

forpasteurization

Surfaceinactivation-all typesofmícroorganisms

areinactivated(spores andviruses'included)

Number ofstudies is still toolow

Effectonsporesisunknown-only pumpable products

Low-temperature process Packaged product(inbatch)-may be

continuous forlíquids Inactivation of

mícroorganísms,thawing; Ircezing; diffusionof

solutions (impregnation);

and protein denaturation

Saniuuicn, extraction Increase ofpressure (until 8000

bars)-lhe stressapplied modífies

the behaviorofmicroorganisms, proíeins, etc. Pulsed magnetíc field Pu!sed light Pulsed

electric

field

Products

High pressure

\

Advantages Applicatlons (functions)

Principie lABLE 2.2

New Nonthermal Principies of Preservation lreatmenfs

These manufacturing operations have other fearures that justify special interest,

Many of themtreatproducts on openconveyorsorin openvesse1sor equipment,

and theyincludehumanhandling or the close proximity ofhumans. Thismeans that

hygienic questions are often critica1for such operations andjustify the use of microbiological control of the atmosphere. Clean rooms or aerobic protectionof equipment mustbe employed.

Inmanyinstances, heterogeneity is part of product quality,especiallywhen a composite objectconsists,forexample,of the combination ofsoftandcrispylayers. The problem is thento control thetransferof wateriand/orother molecules)between theselayers.

Inmatters ofquality,each piece must fulfillcertainrequirements (weight,

co

m-position,contamination, etc.), whereasbulkproducts are sold bytotal weight and average characteristicswithcertain variationallowable among samples.

Many of these operations areresultsof theindustrializationofmanualoperations developedin kitchens. Mechanization maybedifficultduetothe complexnatureof

2.3.3 CHARACTERISTICFEATURESOF FOOD MAI'\IUFACTURtNG OPERATlONS

Thismeans that themost interestingand originaloftheseunitoperations consists

of shaping,separation, andassembly,includingpackaging.

.. Manyheatand masstransfer operations (cansterilization and drying)are based 00 principIesthat do not differ from the principIesof opera:tions

performed onbulkproducts,andtheyareclassicallystudied,

• Tbe same situation exists for reaetions in food objects;their rates are determined by heat andJormasstransfer and/or by reactions kinetics-e-all

classicalconcepts, .

• Transportationof objectsisnotspecifictothefood industryifthese objects are packages or packaged products; however,a specíficity exists if it concems barefoodobjects,beeause problems ofstickiness, hygiene,and deformation maybe encounterediftheproducís are semisolids.

We can tentativelymake alistofsuchunit operations (Table 2.5)asfollows:

2.3.2 CAN WE DEFINE FOOD MANUFACTURING

UNIT

'"

OPERATlONS?

considering objects individually or starting from a bulk product to inake such individual objects. These objects are generally"large,"but their size.is AQ~me relevant eriterion.Iffruits are peeledbyaknife,theyreceivean individualtreatmeüt, and the position ofeachof themis determined;this.maybe considereda manufac -turing operation. When potatoes are peeled by abrasion, the positionof eachof them isnotcontrolled;there is random treatment00 a bulkproduct, Similarly,the color sorting of coffee granulesbyhigh-velocityoptical machines considerseach grain individually,andthis operationcanbe considered food manufacturing.

23

TrendsinFood Engineering

Wehave proposed" todefine a newcategoryofunitoperationsoffood engineering thatwecould callfood manufacturing operations.Itcould bedefinedas operations 2.3.1 WHAT AREFOOD MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS?

Infact, most products sold toconsumers (excludingmostingredients sentto secondary transformation)in industrialcountries formany yearshavenolongerbeen cornmer

-cializedinbulk, Products arepackaged,and oftenshaped, eithertraditionally (e.g., bread, sausages,cheeses,and biscuits) orinnew shapes (e.g., fish fingersandfrozen hamburgers). Furthermore, people consumemoreandmore composite objects such as two-layerdessertcreams,multilayer cakes, ice crearos in eones,pizzas,industrial sandwiches, and prepared dishes.All of thismeansthat growingparts offood plants aredevoted to fomúng, assembling,conveying,and otherwiseprocessing such objects.

1. Treatmentofproduct in bulk, mainlyliquids orsolid particles,correspon d-ing to the classical unit operations of chemical and food engineering (centrifugation,heatinglcoolinginexchangers, distillation, milling,etc.) 2. Treatmentson"objects," i.e.,products likepizzas, cakes,piecesof meat

or fish, and packaged products (cans, bottles, etc.); examples of such operations include the deposition of fruits on a pie, cutting, molding, assemblingofsevera1parts,packaging, etc.

A visit to almost any food plant willshow two typesof operations:

2.3 FOOD MANUFACTURING OPERATlONS

directions of progressinbioteehnology that,in our opinion, offer importantcontrí -butionstothe evolution offood industries. When more generallyspeaking ofbiology, nutrition must alsobequoted as becomingamajorincentive for the creation ofnew products.

Othertechnologicalevolutions havebeen describedaboye. Wenow present as separate topics twospecífic trends: food manufacturing operationsandautomatic controL

for measuring pathogens, unwanted xenobiotic, etc. Specific kits and atIine sensors become available.

tools

New analytical

Tbe cell factory ,'"The useof microorganisms is a way to"do thingsthat can morerapidly lead to new producís." Bioreaction engíneeríng (including enzymatic engineering) is an

important area of progress.

Probably, this is the major arca of interest, with the design of new specífic probes

Genetic and agronomical engineering for agricultural products permits the design

ofnew raw rnaterials.The incidence on processingisnotestablished.

Processingon the field lABLE ~.4

Examples of Perspectives of Biotechnology Application for Innovation in Food Industries

Engineering and Foodfor the 21st Century

Figure 2.3 PrincipIeof sensordevelopment forfoodprocess controlapplicatíons. principies

1tís well recognized today that control science is one of the important avenues for

progress in fuefood industries," Areview of applications and thepotentíal of control

science inthe food industries has been presented.' The main points and ideas are asfollows. Inparallel with heat and massfluxes, which ate classic forfoodengineers,

the complexity of flow sheets implies that fluxes of informati:on are essential aiJ;d

must be taken into account. As it may appear from Figure 2.1, the new objectives

of production imply anecessary evolution frOID mechanization (important for 'P(Ó~

ductivity criteria) to control (important for quality and safety criteria). Withotjt

control, many processes cannot work.

The consequence is that numerous studies have proposed fue'introduotion of

new sensors. Figure 2.3 proposes a set of available methods for sensor designo It is

important toremark that most of the progress today is being made using classical

(simple-ro-use) sensors incombination with computer-based applications.

The direction of algorithm design for control purposes is still under active

development. Nevertheless, animportant gap remains between thelevel oflaboratory 'J

2.4 AUTOMATIC CONTROL

require robotization (in the sense ofprogrammable mechanization), This may

1imit

our interest ininvestments in mechanization, robotization, and automation.

Toall of these specifics may be added the fact that fuese operations so far

ha

v

e

not been the objects of education and academic research commensurate withfheir

importance in industrial investments and with the concerns of food plants operators,

One important exception is packaging, which has received SOrne attention in recent

decades. This deficiency of research, however, has been aIleviated by the transfer

of technology from mechanical industries (products, robotization), These consider

-ations raise our awareness of the need to give mote importance to the topic of

mechanics in the food industry.

TrendsinFood Engineering

many products (thick liquids, pastes, or semisolids=-fragíle, deformable, often

sticky) ro fue composite structure of many of them and to their complicated shapes or dispositions. For example, think of how we could mechanize the deposition of four anchovies onapizza, Insuch operations,themechanical design of themachine

must be related to a knowledge of the mechanical behavior of the product.

Even then, repetitive mechanization, which requires constant human supervision,

is real automation and is difficult to realize, because it supposes SOrne real-time

measurements, The weight of pieces isfairly easy tomeasure (as is.color),but the

determination of shape may require image analysis techniques. Furthermore, auto -mating the control of plants that inelude such operations is very different from the

caseofbulk products; itsupposes the control ofwaiting lines, of flow rates measured in objects per minute, etc., which are all techniques that have been more highly

developed in mechanical industries than infood processing.

Inmany cases, the same plant has toproduce a succession of several batches of products in the same day, which means that flexibility is necessary, and this may

Cheese, yogurt, drysausage

Reactions Biologicaland enzymatic

Everything

Bread, biscuits, meat

Preserves

Meat, bread

Meat

Ham,cheese

Ham, cheese, sausages

'Iransportaiion Conveying

Heat andmass Cooking

transfer Canning Roasting Cooling, freezing Salting Drying

Dosing, depositíon, powdering,

coating

Arrangement

Closing,sealing

Labeling

Wrapping, cartoning

• ofliquids

• ofpasty products • ofpowders and partic1es

Onpizzas, cakes, prepared meals, all cornposite products

Candies, cookies inboxes

Bcttles, cans

Onbottles, cans, etc.

Bottles, cans, etc.

Assembling Filling

Mear carcasses

Mear,fish

Fruits

Fruits, vegetables, coffee grains

Separation Disassemblíng

Cutting Peeling Sorting

Bread, biscuirs, sugar

Biscuits, ham, sugar

Pasta

Formífig Molding ""'.Extrusion

Lamination

Example of products

Principie Unit operation

TABLI~

z.s

Examples of Food Manufaduring Unit Operations

networks

(linquistc)

during processing

Trends

biochemical reactions and theevolution of important factorssuchas temperature, efficient

IN

the form 01'

used to determine water content

engineering will have to be assimilated in theprocesses

the

used to control?

Will

transfer of vn,"''''¡t'',in?' and technology from other sectors. In addition to the fields

described 01' progress

this field will come

Most of the advances

used more

ommendations related to hygiene, traceability, consumers, has

'~"f',rll,,~j- batches.

31

the lineo

frequent. At upper level, flux management and

operation makes this management more critical. The connection between sales, sales

forecasts, materials and other L"-<./...,A."~U, pn)QUICnOn,

has become factor

2.5.3

the

account as as in is

of a "clean process," by which we mean that the process is designed to minirnize

flows of and thus ...."'rinr-H-.n

designs. The

Engineering and Foodfor the 21st Century

7.

5.

3. Bimbenet1. 1.and G. Trystram.1993."Evolution du Génie Industriel Alirnentaire,"

alim. 1-12):

Preservation Technique," Colloque "La conservation de demain," Pessac, France,

User

1.

with machine ratherthan replacing him?

It that

2.6.5 USE MORE MAIHEMATICS 10 INTEGRATE MORE COMPLEXITV

IN Of

USE MORE FUNCTIONAl

NEW PROOUCTS ANO PROCESSES MECHANIZAIION IN

pbysico-chemical

very small scales.

profiles in products during and after processing, Will this method be