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(2) INSTITUTO TECNOLOGICO Y DE ESTUDIOS SUPERIORES DE MONTERREY UNIVERSIDAD VIRTIJ AL. AN INVESTIGATION OF TI-IE NEED TO INCREASE TI-IE ACADEMIC FOCUS IN THE ENGUSH LANGUAGE PROGRAM CURRICULA AT THE INSTITUTO TECNOLOGíCO Y DE ESTUDIOS SUPEHIOl~~ES DE MONTERREY. THESIS PRESENTED TO OBTAIN A MASTER'S DEGREE IN EDUCATION WITI-I SPECIAUZATION IN ESL AUTHOR: CLAUDIA OROZCO HERRERA ADVISORS: PROFR. CAROL CARPENTER ITESM DR. JODI CRANDAll UMBC MONTERREY, N. L.. JUNE 11, 1997.

(3) Acknowledgements. To the ITESM far giving me the opportunity to obtain a Master's Degree in Education.. To Jodi Crandall and Carol Carpenter far their help and advice..

(4) Dedication. To my husband and children for their love and comprehension. To my parents who gave the opportunity to reach this goal.. ¡¡.

(5) AN INVESTIGATION OF THE NEED TO INCREASE THE ACADEMIC FOCUS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROGRAM CURRICULA AT THE INSTITUTO TECNOLOGICO Y DE ESTUDIOS SUPERIORES DE MONTERREY Author: Claudia Orozco Herrera. Advisors: Jodi Crandall UMBC Carol Carpenter ITESM ABSTRACT. The teaching of English as a foreign language is a fundamental component in the curricula of the Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM). During the past six years English lnstruction at ITESM has been based on a communicative approach. In the English Language Program (ELP), students are prepared to communicate in everyday situations in an English-speaking community. lt has been observed that this approach lacks an academic focus, that is, English related to their academic field. The study consists of an investigation to analyze the academic English needs of ITESM students and the degree to which the current English language program is meeting these needs in the curriculum. The main question of this thesis is the following: Is there a need to increase the academic focus of the English Language Program? The research questions that will help the author find the answer to the main question of this thesis in this study are: to find out if students need to increase the academic focus in their English courses and to find out how much academic English is currently included in the English curricula at ITESM. To develop the analysis, a survey was given to both teachers and students to find out how relevant the the program was. A checklist was created to evaluate the program and to answer the main question of this thesis The results of the student survey revealed that the ELP curricula at ITESM does need to increase its academic focus especially in the remedia! courses. The results of the teacher survey also revealed that most teachers said that the courses need to increase their academic focus. An ELP curricula evaluation indicated that the only courses that focus on academics are the ones in the Advanced Modules B and C. The recommendation provided by the author is to try to combine academic and social language. This suggests that the curriculum should be modified to include more academic reading, and this could be done through team-teaching. An English iii.

(6) teacher and a content teacher could work together twice a week so that the English course could help the students in their content textbooks, most of which are in English. The other three days can be used to teach social language.. iv.

(7) AN INVESTIGATION OF THE NEED TO INCREASE THE ACADEMIC FOCUS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROGRAM CURRICULA AT THE INSTITUTO TECNOLOGICO Y DE ESTUDIOS SUPERIORES DE MONTERREY Autora: Claudia Orozco Herrera. Asesores: Jodi Crandall UMBC Carol Carpenter ITESM RESUMEN. La enseñanza de inglés como idioma extranjero es un componente fundamental en el curriculum del Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM). Durante los últimos seis años el ITESM ha utilizado un enfoque comunicativo en sus cursos de inglés. Los alumnos son capacitados para comunicarse en situaciones de la vida diaria en una comunidad de habla inglesa. Este enfoque no enfatiza el inglés académico, esto es, inglés relacionado a su área profesional. El estudio consiste en una investigación para analizar las necesidades de inglés académico de los estudiantes del ITESM y el grado en que el actual programa de inglés está cumpliendo con estas necesidades. La pregunta principal de esta tesis es la siguiente: ¿Existe la necesidad de incrementar el enfoque académico en el programa de inglés del ITESM? Las preguntas de investigación que permitirán al autor contenstar la pregunta principal son: saber si los alumnos tienen la necesidad de incrementar el enfoque académico en los cursos de inglés y saber qué tanto inglés académico está siendo incluído actualmente en el curriculum de inglés en el ITESM. Para llevar a cabo el análisis se aplicó una encuesta a maestros y alumnos para investigar acerca de qué tan relevantes era el programa de inglés.. Una lista. evaluatoria fue creada para evaluar el programa de inglés. Los resultados de la encuesta para alumnos muestran que el programa de inglés del ITESM sí necesita incrementar el enfoque académico especialmente en los cursos remediales. Los resultados de la encuesta para maestros también muestran que la mayoría de los maestros sienten que los cursos de inglés sí necesitan incrementar el enfoque académico. Los resultados del análisis que se V.

(8) realizó al curriculum del program de inglés del ITESM muestan que solamente los cursos de inglés avanzado del modulo A y B enfatizan el inglés académico. La recomendación que la autora sugiere es tratar de combinar el inglés académico con el inglés social. Esto sugiere que el currículum sea modificado de manera que incluya más lecturas con enfoque académico y esto se puede lograr por medio de lo que se ha llamado enseñanza en equipo donde la maestra de inglés y una maestra de la materia de contenido trabajan juntas, quizá dos veces a la semana para que el curso de inglés ayude al alumno en sus libros de contenido en inglés. Los tres días de la semana restantes podrían dedicarse a la enseñanza del inglés social.. vi.

(9) lndex pag. lntroduction. 1. 1. The Problem. 3. 1.1 . Background of the Problem. 3. 1.2. ldentification of the Need. 7. 1.3. Purpose of the Study. 8. 1.4. Justification and Limitations. 9 11. 2. Literature Review 2.1. Approaches and Theories That lnfluence the Syllabus Choice. 11. 2.1.1. Audiolingual Method. 13. 2.1.2. Communicative Approach. 17. 2.1.3. Krashen's Monitor Model. 19. 2.1.4. Natural Approach. 19. 2.1.5. The Total Physical Response. 25. 2.2. Types of Syllabi. 28. 2.2.1. Structural Syllabus. 29. 2.2.1.1. Positive Characteristics of the Structural. 30. Syllabus 2.2.1.2. Negative Characteristics of the Structural. 32. Syllabus 2.2.2. Notional/Functional Syllabus 2.2.2.1. Positive Characteristics of the Notional/Functional. 33 34. Syllabus 2.2.2.2. Negative Characteristics of the Notional/Functional Syllabus vii. 35.

(10) 2.2.3. Situational Syllabus. 35. 2.2.3.1. Positiva Charactaristics of tha Situational. 36. Syllabus. 2.2.3.2. Nagative Characteristics of the Situational. 36. Syllabus. 2.2.4. Skill-Based Syllabus. 37. 2.2.4.1. Positiva Characteristics of the Skill-Based. 38. Syllabus. 2.2.4.2. Negative Characteristics of the Skill-Based. 39. Syllabus. 2.2.5. Task-Based Syllabus. 39. 2.2.5.1. Positive Characteristics of the Task-Based. 41. Syllabus. 2.2.5.2. Nagative Characteristics of the Task-Based. 41. Syllabus. 42. 2.2.6. Content-Basad Syllabus 2.2.6.1. Positive Characteristics of the Content-Based. 45. Syllabus. 2.2.6.2 .. Negative Characteristics of tha Content-Based. 47. Syllabus. 2.2.6.3. Taam-Teaching. 48. 3. Mathodology. 49. 3.1. Research Methods. 49. 3.2. lnstruments far ELP Curricula Analysis. 50. viii.

(11) 3.3. lnstruments for Population Data Collection. 51. 3.4. Methods and Techniques to Analyze and Present. 52. the Results. 4. Findings. 54. 4.1. Results. 54. 4.1.1. Findings on Student Survey. 54. 4.1.2. Findings on Teacher Survey. 68. 4.1.3. Findings on ELP Curricula Analysis. 74. 5. Conclusions and Suggestions. 82. 5.1. Comments and Conclusions. 82. 5.2. Suggestions. 84. Bibliography. 86. Appendix. 90. Appendix A Checklist to Evaluate Curricula. 91. Appendix B Student Questionnaire. 96. Appendix C Teacher Questionnaire. 98. Appendix D 1995 Curricula. 99 130. Vitae. ix.

(12) lndex of Tables Student Survey 1. Table 1 What percent of the time do your teachers speak English during your content classes?. 55. 2. Table 2a What percent of the material used in your content classes is written in English?. 56. 3. Table 2b What type of material is used in your content courses?. 57. 4. Table 3 What percent of the time do you speak English in your content classes?. 58. 5. Table 4 What percent of the time do you write English in. 59. your content classes? 6. Table 5 What percent of the time do your content teachers use audiovisual material in English? 7. Table 6 How useful have your English courses been?. 60 61. 8. Table 7 How much have your English courses focused on your content courses?. 62. 9. Table 8 How much has the ELP helped you in your other content courses?. 63. 1O. Table 9 What abilities would you like your English courses to emphasize?. 64. 11. Table 1O How much have your English courses prepared you to study abroad?. 65. 12. Table 11 How much have your English courses prepared you for using the language in future jobs leaving the ITESM 13. Table 12 How would you like your English course to be. X. 66 67.

(13) Teacher Survey Table 1 How much do you think your Englsih course ia helping your students in their content courses?. 68. Table 2 How much do you think your English courses are training students for their professional jobs or careers?. 69. Table 3 How much are your English courses training students for studying abroad?. 70. Table 4 How much authentic material are you using in your courses?. 71. Table 5 Do you think there is a need to increase the attention to academic and professional English in your courses?. xi. 72.

(14) lntroduction The teaching of English as a foreign language is a basic component in the curricula of most schools in Mexico. At present, the mastery of English is considerad, by ITESM officials, a fundamental need for almost every professional . Teaching English as a foreign language in the past few years has focused on what can be called a social language. Students are preparad to be able to communicate in everyday situations in an English-speaking country. During the past six years, English instruction at the Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) has been based on a communicative approach. This approach teaches basic functions such as asking for information, talking about feelings, making suggestions and apologizing. Students practice language that can be put to immediate use. They learn both spoken and written English and the appropriate language for different situations such as formal speech used with strangers and information speech with friends. Exercises practice the basic functions and structures. They encourage students to give personal information and express their feelings. Natural conversation is stimulated in the classroom. During the academic years 1990-1995 the Spectrum series, a communicative course in English, was used in teaching all but the advanced levels of English, however grammar was greatly emphasized. The English Language Program changed textbooks in Sept. 1996 and is now using the lnterchange and 1n Charge series which have a communicative approach. Therefore, this research will look at students who participated in English courses with the Spectrum series, and who are now taking the English courses 1.

(15) with the new series, that is, students who had to continue their English courses with the new program. Both students and teachers have observed that all these series (Spectrum, lnterchange and In Charge) lack an academic focus. An academic focus is important for ITESM students becuase sorne of their textbooks and articles used in their content courses are written in English. This means that the students and teachers alike feel that their English courses do not assist students in their other academic courses. Undergraduate students need to have certain English training in their professional fields so the research questions of this thesis are: if studerits need to have an increased academic focus in the English language program at ITESM and how much academic English is currently included in the English courses at ITESM. In case there is a need to increase the academic focus, the author will suggest sorne ways to modify the English language program at ITESM in order to combine social and academic language in English courses for undergraduate students. To find out if an academic concentration needs to be augmented in the ITESM English curriculum, this thesis will carry out an analysis of sorne aspects of ITESM's English language program. This will be done through questionnaires and interviews with teachers and students. lf this study concludes that a greater academic focus is needed, it will be the job of another investigator to decide how a plan should be developed and implemented in the area of academic English.. 2.

(16) 1. The Problem The Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) considers the teaching of English as a foreign language to be a fundamental component of its curricula. The English Language Program (ELP) at ITESM uses a communicative approach (see pp. 14 & 15) with a great emphasis on grammar. There has been much concern on the part of the faculty as to whether the academic focus of the ELP should be increased.. Students have expressed. their need of English in other academic courses, especially in the area of reading comprehension. They feel that English is important to reach their goals and objectives.. 1.1. Background of the Problem In Mexico the knowledge of English has become a predominant need for most professionals. Nowadays, English is considerad the language in the world of business and other important areas like computers and science (García and Chapa, p.3). Educators have tried to meet this need by offering English courses at most levels of education. From 1990 to the present, ITESM has chosen communicative courses in English to fulfill this need for its students. But ITESM is a technical and business-orientad university, and for students and graduates alike to be successful in their fields, they must be proficient in academic/content-specific language. At present, it appears that the English language program at ITESM is not sutficiently focusing on academic language.. By academic or content, the. author refers to the instruction that is based on the skills and content that the students will need in a non-English classroom to help them fullfill their academic requirements in courses that use English language material. lt is the 3.

(17) integration of the teaching of English as a foreign language with the instruction of a subject matter. The English courses at ITESM have generally focused on social language which is the language used in an everyday situation. Teachers have also greatly emphasized grammar due to the departmental exam bank used by the English Department anda 510 TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) score requirement for graduation. There has been little time for English related to academic fields, and many students at ITESM feel that their English courses are not useful in helping them with their other courses because they do not teach them academic language. Nor do their English courses prepare them adequately to use English in their future jobs. Currently, courses are more concerned with helping students acquire social English rather than learn English for academic purposes or for use in a work environment. From 1990 to 1995, the ELP was divided into six levels. The first two (Spectrum 1 and 2) were considered remedia!. The intermediate levels were English 1 (Spectrum 3), English 2 (Spectrum 4), and English 3 (Spectrum 5). lf students passed a grammar-based placement test of questions from all five levels, they could go into the Advanced Module, which consisted of severa! courses: Understanding Cultures of the World, Readings from Time, Translation Strategies, Preparation for the TOEFL test, Public Speaking, French or German. AII undergraduate students were required to take three post-remedia! foreign language courses.. Every five years ITESM reviews and updates its mission in. view of the needs of Mexico and its students. This updating is called "Plan" and the number that follows is the number of the year in which it is implemented. In August, 1995, the Spectrum series was replaced by other series which had the same communicative/grammar focus. The new ELP (Plan '95) consists of 4.

(18) four remedia! courses and one core course, and the TOEFL is administered as the placement test to all incoming undergraduate students. The obligatory core courses develop skills that will be the same for all the undergraduate students, no matter what field they are majoring in. The courses are designed as follows: Remedia! English 1: This course could be considered equivalent to Remedia! English I and II on the Plan '90. AII those who score below 360 on the TOEFL will take this course. The textbook used for this course is lnterchange 1. Remedia! English 11: This course is similar to English 1, Plan '90. The entrance requirement is to obtain 363-390 on the TOEFL test or have taken Remedia! English 1. The textbook used is lnterchange 2. Remedia! English 111: This course is similar to English 11, Plan '90. The requirement is to obtain a score of 392-420 on the TOEFL or to have taken Remedia! English 11. The textbook used is lnterchange 3. Remedia! English IV: This course corresponds to English 111, Plan '90. The requirement for this course is to obtain a TOEFL score of between 423 and 447 orto have taken Remedia! English 111. The textbook used is In Charge l. When a student obtains a TOEFL score of 450 or above, he or she is allowed to take a core course determinad by the TOEFL score. Sorne of the core course options are the following: Core Course. A:. The requirement for this course is to have obtained a TOEFL score of between 450-497. The textbooks used are Face the lssues and Grammar Dimensions. 5.

(19) Core Course B: The requirement for this course is to have a score between 500-547 on the TOEFL test. The textbooks used are Speech Communication for lnternational Students and WritingYour Way. Core Course C: There are a variety of courses that students can take if they score 550 or above on the TOEFL placement test. - Readings from Newsweek. The material used in this course are Newsweek Magazine and The Little. Brown Handbook. - American Literature. The texbooks used are The Heath Anthology of American Literature and Little, Brown Handbook. - Understanding Cultures of the World. The textbooks used are Ourselves Among Others and The Little, Brown Handbook. - French - German - ltalian -Japanese In the past, assessment or evaluation of learning in the English courses at ITESM was not through the use of the tests provided by the Spectrum or lnterchange series; instead, the ELP has been using teacher-made exams. In 1993 a committee was created to develop departamental monthly and final exams, which consisted of grammar, listening comprehension, reading comprehension, writing and an oral sections. This kind of evaluation is still used in the present with the new program. Forty percent of the student grade is. 6.

(20) based on the departmental grammar section, twenty percent is based on an oral section, ten percent on a listening comprehension section, ten percent on a reading comprehension section, ten percent on a writing section and ten percent on homework assignments. This evaluation is given every month during the week of exams.. Even though students are taking a communicative course,. farty percent of the exams' content evaluates grammatical structures. This creates a lot of frustration in the students. They feel that there is no correspondence between classroom teaching and the evaluation process since most of the time grammar is taught only once or twice a week eventhough the classes meet daily. Although they disagree about the way they are being evaluated, many students like their courses because they teach English far everyday situations, and this facilitates the development of their social language. Far example, many students feel satisfied when they are able to use their English to communicate in an English-speaking country, but they feel that their priority at this moment is to be able to use English in their other courses. Students have commented that they need an English course that can help them increase their vocabulary in their professional fields and that can help them in their reading because most of their content textbooks are in English. The problem then is that the current ELP facuses on farms and functions far fareigners living in the U.S. (social language) and not on academic coursework in a non-English speaking country (academic language). This situation suggests that sorne changes should be made in the current English language program at ITESM.. 1.2. ldentification of the Need Since 1990, the mission of the ITESM has been to internationalize the 7.

(21) university, allowing students more opportunities to study in the United States. The ITESM seeks to encourage the students' development of abilities and skills such as the mastery of a foreign language, which is indispensable for increased international relations. In order to develop these skills, the ITESM established that the educational programs of all the majors had to share a group of common courses which were called core courses or "cursos sello".. English as a foreign. language is among these courses, and the ELP is preparing students to be able. to communicate in English by focusing on the areas of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Sorne academic English needs are: reading textbooks in English, understanding lectures given in English, communicating with students and teachers of foreign universities, and, beginning in 1995, understanding content courses given in English. Currently there is no assurance that the ITESM ELP is meeting these academic needs, so there is a need to investigate and prove that the ELP has to increase the academic language to fulfill the requirements of the students.. 1.3. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this thesis is to analyze the academic English needs of ITESM students and the degree to which the current English language program is meeting these needs in the curriculum. The analysis of the need to increase the academic focus in the English courses will help administrators and teachers determine if the skills emphasized by the program are meeting the needs of the students. lf this is not so, then the analysis will provide sorne ideas of how to modify the current English program.. 8.

(22) 1.4. Justification and Limitations The purpose of this thesis is to investigate and analyze the academic English content of the current ELP and to determine whether the ELP is fulfilling the academic needs of the undergraduate students and if changas in the curriculum could be made. This thesis will also suggest sorne additional methods or courses that could be used to combine social English and English for academic purposes. These methods include a changa in focus and new material. For example, an emphasis should be placed on improving listening comprehension during content lecturas given in English and developing strategies to facilitate comprehension of academic reading. The English language program has changad from the Spectrum textbooks to the lnterchange series, which was adopted in August 1995. However, this is not considered a limitation for this thesis. Both series are based on the communicative approach and provide the same focus for English conversation classes and social language for communication. Neither text series has an academic focus. This thesis will check the courses offered by the ELP to see if they have academic content. The author will present a checklist to evaluate the ELP curicula which is a content inventory to identify the lack of academic focus. lt is not the purpose of this thesis to present a detailed analysis of the ELP curricula or of designing a changa in the curriucla. The thesis is divided into five chapters. The first chapter presents the background of the problem and the purpose of the research. Chapter two is a literatura review that presents foreign language teaching approaches and sorne types of syllabi. A background of foreign language teaching is important to give the evolution of foreign language teaching so the reader will know how the 9.

(23) ITESM arrived to its current rnethod. This will show that the ELP is leaving out sorne essential skills that the students need far their professional and acadernic lives. The third chapter talks about the rnethodology used in the investigation so the reader will understand the steps followed by the author in this research. After the rnethodology is explained, the author presents the results in chapter four. Finally is chapter five, sorne conclusions and suggestions are given.. 10.

(24) 2. Literatura Review This literatura review will go from general to specific. lt will start by describing the different kinds of appoaches that have influenced the syllabus choice. The second part presents an analysis of several kinds of syllabi in foreign language teaching that place more emphasis on a content-based syllabus, which is the main interest of this thesis. Most of the information relatad to the different types of foreign language approaches was taken from Richards and Rodgers. 1 recognize the need to investigate other authors when the objective is to evaluate and analyze the various theories. This is not the purpose of this literatura review. The purpose of this chapter is to present a general overview of the approaches and theories that influence the syllabus choice and this will let the reader know how the ITESM arrived to its current method. 2.1. Approaches and Theories That lnfluence the Syllabus Choice Theories and approaches concerning how languages are learned, representad, organizad in meaning and structured began to arise when linguists became interested in improving the quality of language teaching. Richards and Rodgers quote Edward Anthony, who defines 'approach' "as the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified ... which serve as the source of practica and principies in language teaching" (Richards and Rodgers, p. 16). According to Richards and Rodgers, there are at least three theoretical views of language which influence language teaching. The first and most traditional is the structural view. The structural view considers language a system of structurally relatad elements far the coding of meaning. The learning 11.

(25) of a language is the mastery of the elements of this system: phonology, morphology and syntax. The Audiolingual Approach embodies this traditional view. The second view mentioned is the functional view. Here language is considered a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. This view emphasizes the meaning and communicative aspects of language and not its grammatical dimension. Content-based instruction, for example, sees language from a functional point view and not from a structural aspect of language. The third view of language is the interactional view. "lt sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions." This view works with everything that has to do with conversational exchanges such as patterns of movements, acts and negotiation. The authors state that these patterns are incomplete unless they are complemented by theories and approaches of language learning (p. 15). Barry Mclaughlin defines theory as "a way of interpreting, criticizing and unifying established generalizations" (p. 3). According to him, a theory has three functions: understanding, transforming and predicting. Theories help scholars to understand and to summarize information or experience into a relatively short list of propositions. Theories also help to transform empirical data into conclusions.. The author says that theories guide prediction in the. sense that they generate new hypotheses, and these hypotheses contain predictions about where the theory is leading (p.3). This section analyzes three approaches and two theories of foreign language learning. They will provide a basis for the description of the different kinds of syllabi.. 12.

(26) 2.1.1. Audiolingual Method Audiolingualism is an approach to language teaching that is linguistic and structure-based. The emergence of the Audiolingual Method, Richards and Rodgers say, resulted from the increase of fareign language teaching in the United States at the end of the 1950's. The United States had become an international power, and the thousands of fareign students coming to the United States to study required English training. The Audiolingual Method is a combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures and behaviorist psychology. Audiolingualism advocats "claimed to have transfarmed language teaching from an art to a science, which would enable learners to achieve mastery of a fareign language effectively and efficiently" ( Richards and Rodgers, p. 48). In the Audiolingual Approach, a fareign language is taught through aural training first, then pronunciation, fallowed by speaking, reading and writing. In this approach, speech has a priority in language teaching, since it is considered that people learn to speak befare they learn to read and write. Richards and Rodgers mention severa! principies of Audiolingualism that emerged with the behaviorist influence of the 1960's. 1. Foreign language learning is a process of habit farmation. Learners minimize errors by memorizing dialogues and performing pattern drills. 2. Language skills are learned better when presented in spoken farm befare they are seen in written farm. 3. The teaching of grammar is inductive rather than deductive. 4. Teaching a language and the meaning of the words involves teaching aspects of the culture.. 13.

(27) By means of the Audiolingual Approach, the authors say, the teaching of the different skills (listening comprehension, pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary) is related to the development of oral proficiency. "Language is primarily speech in audiolingual theory, but speaking skills are themselves dependent upan the ability to accurately perceive and produce the majar phonolgical features of the target language, fluency in the use of the key grammatical patterns in the language, and knowledge of sufficient vocabulary to use with these patterns" (p. 52). The bases of an audiolingual classroom are the repetition and memorization of dialogues in arder to contextualize structures, to illustrate situations in which the structures might be used and to represent cultural aspects of the second language (Richards and Rodgers, p. 53). Students have a reactive role in this approach because they have to respond to a stimulus; therefore so they have very little control over content and learning style. On the other hand, teachers have an active role because they provide the stimulus and they are the monitors in the drilling activity (Richards and Rodgers, p. 53). Richards and Rodgers state that this is a ''teacher-dominant method". The teacher has to monitor and correct the students' utterances and has to vary the drills and to keep the learners responding actively. The teaching materials are primarily teacher oriented. Since the students are first trained in the areas of listening, repeating and responding, tape recorders and audiovisuals are especially useful in an audiolingual classroom when the teacher is not a native speaker of the target language. The tape recorder presents accurate examples of dialogues and drills. Language laboratories are also useful far further. 14.

(28) practice in drilling. Audiolingualism is basically an oral approach, so the teaching involves extensive oral instruction in the target language. Translation and the use of the native language are not encouraged (p. 57). Audiolingualists, influenced by behaviorists, considers the human being an organism capable of a variety of behaviors. They claim that behaviors occur due to a stimulus which elicits a behavior, a response as a result of a stimulus and negative or positive reinforcement which marks the appropriateness or inappropriateness of the response and discourages or encourages the repetition of the response in the future. "Language mastery is represented as acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus-response chains" (Richards and Rodgers, p. 50). Behaviorism was a dominant school in psychology which guided most of the language learning discussions at the end of the 1960's.. lts theorists. considered language learning a process of habit development obtained through reinforcement. Behaviorist Theory proponents justified principies such as "sequential control of the learning process, specification of learning goals and immediate reinforcement" (McLaughlin, p. 7). Behaviorists define the term 'habit' as "a particular response to a particular stimulus" (Ellis, p. 20). Behaviorist psychologists wanted to investigate how habits were established. Behaviorist investigators such as Watson and Skinner believed that habits were observable. They were against the idea that language learning was an interna! mental process. Another of their claims was that habits were automatic. They believed that habits "were performed spontaneously without awareness and were difficult to eradicate unless environmental changes led to the extinction of the stimuli upon which they were built" (Ellis, p. 20). Skinner believed that "the learner copies the stimulus behavior sufficiently otten for it to become automatic 15.

(29) ... and the response of the learner is rewarded or punished depending on whether it is appropriate or otherwise, until only appropriate responses are given" (Ellis, p. 21 ). The concept of interference is an important aspect of the behaviorist theory of second language acquisition.. lnterference results in what is called proactive. inhibition, which is the idea that previous learning habits prevent the learning of new habits. For example, interference and errors occur when two languages have the same idea but are expressed in a different way. A Mexican student may say 'I have hunger' because in Spanish this meaning is expressed as 'tengo hambre'. According to this theory, new habit formation is necessary whenever the stimulus-response of the L2 (any other language that is not the native language or languages) differs from that of the L 1( native language or languages). Not all patterns differ from L 1 to L2, so the learner does not need to overcome proactive inhibation in all cases (Ellis p, 22). Behaviorist Theory advocates that transfer is possible from L 1 to L2. Transfer is considered negative when L 1 and L2 are different and when there is proactive inhibition because errors will occur. Transfer will be positive when the first and second language have the same structural elements because no errors will occur. In the behaviorist theory, errors are considered a result of students not overcoming proactive inhibition, not of wrong learning. Errors are not desired because there is a danger of the errors becoming habits or of what has been called fossilization (Ellis, p. 22). According to Mclaughlin, Skinner's theory of language learning was abandonad because the answers that it provided were inadequate and because it did not raise new questions. As a result, researchers began to look to other theories and to generate new hypotheses ( Mclaughlinp. 16). 16.

(30) The Behaviorist Theory was challenged by Chomsky's theory of transformational grammar in which he states that "much of the human language is not imitated behavior but is created anew from underlying knowledge of abstract rules. Sentences are not learned by imitation and repetition but 'generated' from the learner's underlying 'competence"' (Richards and Rodgers, p. 59). lt was claimed that learners were supposed to be creative in their language use. After the decline of Audiolingualism in the United States, a period of adaptation, innovation, experimentation and sorne confusion emerged with second language acquisition theories and methods.. 2.1 .2. Communicative Approach The emphasis of the Communicative Approach is on the process of communication rather than on the mastery of language. The goal of this approach is to develop what has been called communicative competence by Hymes, who considers it to be a tool that the speaker needs to have in order to be verbally competent in a speech community. He considers that a person that acquires communicative competence is one who acquires both knowledge of and ability to use the language (Richards and Rodgers, p. 69). Halliday's linguistic theory of communication also favors the communicative approach.. He talks about a functional account of language use, and says that. linguistics has to do with the description of speech acts because it is only through the study of language in use that all the functions of language and all the components of meaning are brought into focus (Richards and Rodgers, p. 70).. Richards and Rodgers say that the Communicative Approach considers the learning of a second language as acquiring the linguistic means to perform 17.

(31) different kinds of functions. Richards and Rodgers mention sorne characteristics of the communicative view of language: 1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning. 2. The primary function of language is for interaction and communication. 3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses. 4. The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse ( p. 71 ). Richards and Rodgers mention three principies in a communicative language teaching approach, the first of which is the principie that learning is prometed by activities that involve real communication. The task principie states that learning happens when a person performs activites where language is used to carry out a meaningful task. And the meaningfulness principie states that the learning process is supported by the students using language that is contextualized and meaningful (p. 76). The Communicative Approach designs classroom activities that are based on completing a task that is mediated through language. The goal of these activities is that students interact more with each other than with the teacher. Error correction is not stressed in this approach, is cooperative rather than individualist approach. Richards and Rodgers cite Breen and Candlin, who go on to mention sorne roles of the teacher in this type of approach: 1. The teacher should facilitate the communication process between the participants in the class. 18.

(32) 2. Teachers should be organizers of resources and they should be resources themselves. 3. The teacher should be a guide for the classroom activites by monitoring and encouraging students during classroom activites (p. 77). Richards and Rodgers add that there are several kinds of material that a teacher can use. The material can be text-based, task-based, or realia. Sorne text-based material is designed to guide communicative language teaching by presenting a kind of grading and sequencing of language practice. The task-based material consists of activities based on games, role-playing, simulations and task-based communication. Realia might include handbooks, cue cards, activity cards, etc. (p. 79). There are several kinds of syllabi that are based on the Communicative Approach, for example, the notional-functional syllabus and the task-based syllabus. These will be analyzed in the next section. As Richards and Rodgers mention, the Communicative Approach raises important issues for teacher training, material development, testing and evaluation. Questions might include whether this kind of approach is suitable for all levels, whether it is appropriate for ESL as well as EFL situations and whether this kind of approach can be evaluated. The authors believe that these kinds of questions must be addressed by proponents of the communicative movement. 2.1.3. Krashen's Monitor Model Krashen's theory can be summarized by a single claim: "People acquire second languages only if they obtain comprehensible input and if their affective filters are low enough to allow the input 'in'. When the filter is 'down' and appropriate comprehensible input is. 19.

(33) presentad (and comprehended), acquisition is inevitable. lt is, in fact, unavoidable and cannot be prevented. The language 'mental organ' will function justas automatically as any other organ" (Krashen, p. 5). Krashen states that comprehensible input is an essential element for second language acquisition. According to this theory, acquisition occurs through meaningful interactions that happen in a natural communication setting. Speakers, Krashen says, are not interested in form but in meaning. Krashen states that what the students consciously learn through grammar rules does not become acquisition of the target language. This theory of second language acquisition consists of five hypotheses: 1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: Krashen states that second language students have two ways of obtaining competence in a second language. These are acquisition and learning. Acquisition is the unconscious process children use when learning their native language, and learning is a conscious process whereby students learn about a language. 2. The Natural Order Hypothesis Advocates of this hypothesis state that the rules of language are acquired in a predictable order; sorne rules come earlier than others. Rules are not determinad solely by linguisitic complexity or by the order in which the items appear in a teaching syllabi. According to this hypothesis, acquisition orders do not reflect instructional sequences. 3. The Monitor Hypothesis This hypotheis has to do with how acquisition and learning are used in production. lt states that the ability to produce utterances in the second language is derived from an acquired competence in the subconscious. 20.

(34) knowledge. Conscious knowledge serves asan editor or monitor. To make corrections and to change the output of the acquired system befare speaking or writing, the student appeals to learning. According to Krashen, there are two conditions that a student needs to have in order to use the monitor. The pertormer must be consciously concerned about correctness, and he or she must know the rule. Krashen states that even though focusing on form may increase accuracy, it has been found that accuracy takes longer and may seriously disrupt communication in conversational situations (p. 2). 4. The Input Hypothesis The Input Hypothesis states that there is only one way through which we can acquire language, and this is by understanding messages by receiving 'comprehensible' input. According to this hypothesis, progress along the 'natural order' is achieved when the learner at sorne stage receives comprehensible input that contains input a bit beyond that stage. The learner moves from i which is the current level, to i + 1 which is the next level along the natural order.. Krashen states that we are able to understand unacquired. grammar using the context which includes extralinguistic data, knowledge of the world and previously acquired competence. Krashen says that speaking is a result of acquisition and not its cause. Speech cannot be taught but rather results from competence via comprehensible input. lf this input is enough and is understood, then the necessary grammar is automatically provided. According to this statement, the language teacher does not need to teach the next structure along the natural order explicitly if the student receives sufficient comprehensible input (p. 2). 5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis According to the Affective Filter Hypothesis, comprehensible input is not 21. 000860.

(35) sufficient for acquisition. The acquirer needs to be 'open' to the input. Far Krashen, the affective filter is a mental block that prevents people from using the comprehensible input they receive for the acquisition of a language. lf the affective filter is 'up', the acquirer may understand but what he or she hears or reads will not result in acquisition. This means that ''the acquirer is unmotivated, lacking in self confidence, anxious ... he or she considers the language class to be a place where his/her weaknesses will be revealed" (Krashen, p. 3).. When. the filter is down the acquirer does not consider the possibility of failure in language acquisition.. 2.1.4. Natural Approach The Natural Approach is based on Krashen's theory of acquisition. Krashen states that comprehensible input, that is, information that the learner understands, is an essential element for second language acquisition. According to this theory, acquisition occurs through meaningful interactions that happen in a natural communication setting. Speakers, Krashen says, are not interested in form but in meaning. The difference between language acquisition and language learning is that the latter focuses on the conscious attention to grammar rules.. According to this theory, language is acquired in a classroom. through the use of dialogues, role-playing and any kind of meaningful interaction (Krashen, p. 9). Tracy Terrell proposed the Natural Approach asan attempt to develop a language-teaching approach with realistic principies. Terrell combined his ideas with Krashen's theory of second language acquisition. The Natural Approach is based on what Terrell and Krashen called traditional approaches to language teaching which emphasize the use of language in communicative. 22.

(36) situations without the help of the native language. This means that the teaching does not require the use of grammatical analysis or drilling (Krashen, p. 14). The most important function of language in this approach is communication, so the Natural Approach has been considered an example of a communicative approach. The Natural Approach emphasizes meaning and vocabulary. Terrel and Krashen believe that language is a means of communicating meaning and messages, and that the only way in which the process of acquisition occurs is when the people understand the message in the the target language. The Natural Approach considers that language learning is the mastery of structures by stages. This idea is based on Krashen's Input Plus One Hypothesis i + 1 and on Krashen's Natural Order Hypothesis. The Natural Approach, say Richards and Rodgers, can be viewed as the teaching of lexical items, structures, and messages. Nevertheless, Terrel and Krashen claim that grammar does not need to be explicitly taught in a language course (Krashen p. 15). Richards and Rodgers state that the Natural Approach was designed for beginners who want to move quickly to the intermediate level. The objective of this approach is to develop oral and written communicative skills. These communicative goals might be expressed in terms of situations, functions and tapies. The communicative goal of the Natural Approach may also depend on an assessment of the student's needs (Richards and Rodgers, p. 129). According to Richards and Rodgers, it is difficult to make a list of communicative goals that fit all the needs of the students, so they say that a list of tapies and situations can only be considered as suggestions for a syllabus. They add that the students, selection of the content should help create what Krashen calls 'a low affective filter' (Richards and Rodgers, p. 133). This low affective filter also interests and motivates the students in the class. Krashen 23.

(37) has said that the filter goes down when the acquirer is interested in the messages, and this makes the acquirer forget that he or she is hearing and reading in another language. The type of teaching techniques used in the Natural Approach are taskbased activities where students share information to complete a task. This group work encourages interaction and creates a classroom community. Richards and Rodgers state that there is nothing new about the activities used in the Natural Approach; what characterizes them is that they emphasize the idea of "providing comprehensible input and a classroom environment that aids comprehension of input, minimizes learner anxiety and maximizes learner selfconfidence" (p. 136). Richards and Rodgers also mention that the teacher's role is to be the primary source of comprehensible input in the second or foreign language. The teacher should create a low-anxiety atmosphere because according to this approach, the student is a more successful language learner in a low-anxiety environment. This low anxiety atmosphere is obtained by not demanding the students to speak befo re they are ready, by not correcting errors and by offering activities which include suject matter interesting to the students (Richards and Rodgers, p. 138). Most of the material in a natural approach comes from authentic material instead of textbooks. The teacher needs to gather material and activities or design his or her own. The role of the instructional material is to emphasize comprehension and communication. Recommended material is authentic texts taken from newspapers and magazines, brochures, games, and any other material that supplies content for communication and provides new vocabulary (Richards and Rodgers, p. 138).. 24.

(38) The Natural Approach emphasizes comprehension and meaningful communication. According to Richards and Rodgers, "its greatest claim to originality lies not in the techniques it employs but in their use in a method that emphasizes comprehensible and meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterances and sentences" (p. 141 ).. Sorne. authors claim that once communication is fossilized there is little hope for these learners. An error that is fossilized is one which will never be corrected by the speaker because he/she has used it so often without knowing that it is a mistake that it has been internalized as correct (Richards and Rodgers, p. 140). This has been the greatest criticism of Terrell's Natural Approach.. 2.1.5. The Total Physical Response Total Physical Response is a language teaching approach that is based on the coordination of speech and action. lts objective is to teach language through physical activity. This approach was developed by James Asher, who believes that "most of the grammatical structure of the target language and vocabulary items can be learned from the skillful use of imperative by the instructor'' (Richards and Rodgers, p. 88). The introduction and practice of new language items are introduced through action verbs, emphasizing comprehension and physical action. Asher differentiates between what he calls abstractions and nonabstractions. Nonabstractions are represented by concrete nouns and imperative verbs. He states that a learner can learn the grammatical structure of a language without the use of abstractions representad by tense, aspect and articles. Asher also believes that a language can be internalized as chunks rather than as single lexical items (Richards and Rodgers, p. 89). 25.

(39) The Total Physical Response can be considerad a 'Natural Approach' in which second language teaching and learning reflect the naturalistic processes of first-language learning. A second language should be learned just as a child learns a first language. This means that listening competence develops before speaking ability because of the need to respond physically to spoken language in the form of commands. Once listening comprehension is established, speech evolves naturally. In the Total Physical Response Approach, listening exercises should be accompanied by physical movement. Asher believes that the Total Physical Response is directed to right-brain learning and not left-brain learning, to which most second language teaching methods are directed. Asher states that a language learner in a Total Physical Response Approach acquires a language through motor activity, and this is a right-hemisphere activity. "Righthemisphere activities must occur before the left hemisphere can process language for production" (Richards and Rodgers, p. 91 ). According to Asher, when a sufficient amount of right-hemisphere learning has taken place, then the left hemisphere, after watching and learning from the right hemisphere, will produce language and will begin working with more abstract language processes (Richards and Rodgers, p. 91). Asher states that an important factor for successful language learning is the absence of stress since this is how first-language acquisition takes place. This reduction of stress is made possible by the students, focusing on meaning interpretad through movement rather than on forms studied in an abstract way (Richards and Rodgers, p. 91 ). The main objective of Total Physical Response is to teach oral proficiency in the beginning levels. "Comprehension is a means to an end and the ultimate aim is to teach basic speaking skills" (Richards and Rodgers, p. 91 ). Every goal. 26.

(40) that is set in the Total Physical Response Approach must be obtained through action-based drills in the imperativa form. The type of syllabus that a Total Physical Response Approach uses is one in which initial attention is given to meaning rather than form. Richards and Rodgers say that grammar is taught inductively. The grammatical items and vocabulary are chosen according to the situations in which they can be used in the classroom and the facility with which they can be learned (Richards and Rodgers, p. 92). The major teaching activities used in a Total Physical Response classroom are imperativa drills that are used to elicit physical actions and activities from the learner. Role playing and slide presentations are also used. Reading and writing are employed to consolidate structures and vocabulary. The learners in this approach have the role of listeners and performers. Students listen and respond physically to both individual and collective commands. (Richards and Rodgers, p. 93). Teachers also play an active role in a Total Physical Response Approach. The teacher decides what to teach, presents new material and provides supporting activities. The teacher must be well prepared and organizad with a detailed lesson plan. Asher states that the teacher's role is not so much to teach but rather to provide opportunities for learning. Teachers should give the same kind of feedback that parents give to a child when he or she is learning a first language. This means that teachers should not correct learners in the early stages and should not interrupt to correct mistakes. As learners become more fluent, then more teacher intervention is expected (Richards and Rodgers, p. 92).. 27.

(41) In a Total Physical Response Approach there is no basic textbook. For beginners the teacher's voice, actions and gestures are sufficient for a classroom activity. The teacher may also use classroom objects such as books and furniture. For advanced levels, materials and realia can be used. These may include pictures, cards and word charts (Richards and Rodgers, p. 95). Richards and Rodgers mention that a possible question that might arise to the Total Physical Response syllabus could be its relevance to the real world. They mention that Asher himself has stated that a Total Physical Response syllabus should be used in association with other methods and techniques (p. 97).. 2.2. Types of Syllabi This section presents six kinds of syllabi. They will be defined separately although, as Krahnke says, they rarely occur independently of each other. He states that all language teaching syllabi are a combination of two or more approaches even though one may be the more dominant (Kranke, p. 9). The discussion of these six kinds of syllabi will be useful in situating the kind of syllabus currently in use at ITESM. Chapter 5 will present sorne suggestions for syllabus design; with this previous knowledge of the content of the different kinds of syllabi, it will be easier to draw conclusions. This chapter will aid teachers in deciding what type or types of syllabus to use because it describes the different kinds of content that can be included in a language program and sorne principies that need to be considerad for establishing an effective program.. 28.

(42) 2.2.1. Structural Syllabus Karl Krahnke defines a structural syllabus as "one in which the content of language teaching is a collection of the forms and structures, usually grammatical, of the language being taught" (p.1 O). This syllabus is based on the teaching of grammar (nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements, questions, compound sentences, subordinate sentences, etc.) A structural syllabus is also known as a grammatical syllabus. According to Krahnke, this kind of syllabus gets its principies from the theory that the grammar or structure of a language is the most important aspect of learning. When ideas of communicating in the new language arise, the structural syllabus considers that functional ability results from structural knowledge. The content of a structural syllabus is primarily based on form. Most of the structural syllabi use sorne kind of descriptiva or prescriptive grammar. In the structural syllabus domain, the largest unit of discourse is the sentence. Sentences are treated semantically (declarativas, questions or interrogatives, exclamations, and conditionals) and grammatically (simple, compound, or complex). The structural syllabus also deals with morphology, such as singular and plural markers, determiners and articles, prepositions and postpositions, gender markers, and prefixes and suffixes (p. 16). According to Krahnke, the structural syllabus is synthetic, which means that it requires analysis of the language content. He says that structural syllabi assume that learners can synthesize the material being taught in one of two ways. First, he says, the rules and patterns are practiced when the learner tries to use them in communication. Second, Krahnke continues, the analyzed information and conscious knowledge are changed into unconscious behavior that results in language use (p. 16).. 29.

(43) In a structural syllabus, there are ditferent uses of structures. Students are expected to be able not only to describe and explain rules but also to use judgemental ability, that is, to judge whether a given form is acceptable or not and to correct unacceptable forms. Another goal of a structural syllabus is to prepare the learner to use the structures without necessarily describing the rules, that is, the learner must be able to have the accurate productive behavior or ability whicti native speakers have. Students must be fluent while speaking without having to think of the rules (Krahnke, p. 17) The selection of the content is not a problem in a structural syllabus. What needs to be considered carefully is the grading of the content. There are several criteria in grading material. Krahnke mentions Kelly (1969), who talks about facility (to present the material in a way that the learner can understand it easily and quickly), grammatical analysis and productivity (usefulness of the language). What has to be avoided is the strict grading of the structure without considering aspects such as communicative facility. Other criteria that can be considered when grading material are the degree of ditference between the native language and the target language, the need that the student has far communicating in the target language, and the natural arder in which a structure is acquired (Kranhnke p. 19).. 2.2.1.1. Positive Characteristics of the Structural Syllabus Structural approaches have received much criticism. Regardless of this criticism, Krahnke says, the structural syllabus is one of the most popular, used in its pure form or in combination with other kinds of syllabi, and it should be considered in the teaching of a language. One of the arguments in favor of a structural approach is that grammar is an important element of communicative. 30.

(44) competence. lf an utterance is correctly formed, it involves grammar or a structure that can be used for different functions, situations and meanings (p. 21 ). Krahnke mentions a second reason for using a structural syllabus. He states the aspect of familiartiy, that is, in a language course students always expect grammar, and the content is usually familiar to the learner. A third positiva characteristic of a structural approach is that the content is easily described. The parts of speech are concepts that are known in any language. Krahnke agrees with the idea that structural terms are better defined than functional concepts (p. 22). Fourth, knowledge can be easily measured; how mucha student has or has not learned can be easily assessed. The evidence we have that grammar is an aspect easier to measure than any other aspect is that language assessments usually involve sorne kind of grammar test (Krahnke, p. 21 ). A fifth positive feature for structural syllabi according to Krahnke is that they help avoid fossilization. Krahnke comments on an investigation made by Higgs and Clifford, who state that fossilization is a result of the prior knowledge of the language. They argue that high proficient students are usually those who received instruction on the form of the language. Those who fossilized were those who had no formal instruction of the language (Krahnke, p. 23). Sixth, in Krashen's theory of acquisition, structural knowledge can serve as the basis for the student to monitor or check the accuracy of utterances and to self correct using the grammatical rules acquired. Krashen's theory recommends the teaching of grammar because it plays an important role in second language performance (Krahnke, p. 23).. 31.

(45) A seventh positive aspect of the structural syllabi is that the teaching of grarnrnar provides teachers with a way to give students feedback on the accuracy of their utterances. Teachers can easily correct students' rnistakes by rnaking specific references to previous grarnrnar instruction. Even though, as Krahnke rnentions, evidence has shown that conscious error correction has no positive effect on accuracy, it is an accepted technique in rnany teaching prograrns (p. 24). An eighth and final positive feature that Krahnke rnentions is that structural syllabi are naturally value-culture-free. This rneans that they can be used regardless of the instructional settings where the language needs to be learned but not the social and cultural values that are related to it (Krahnke, p. 24).. 2.2.1.2. Negative Characteristics of the Structural Syllabus Regardless of the severa! positiva features related to the structural syllabus, irnportant weaknesses are related to it. The rnost notorious of these is the idea that grarnrnar can be taught and learned, but, Krahnke says, there is little evidence that it can affect behavior in language use. Krahnke rnentions a study done by Hartwell where findings indicate that there is no relationship between the teaching of grarnrnar and the writing ability in the learner's first language. Evidence shows that the order in which sorne structures appear in actual language is different frorn the order in which they are taught (Krahnke, p. 24). Sorne students do learn grarnrnar and are able to dernonstrate their knowledge on sorne kinds of tests, but it is still doubtful that their knowledge can be rnanifested in unrnonitored language use, that is, in spontaneous speech. According to Krahnke, students who are learning grarnrnar think they are learning a language when they are only learning inforrnation about the. 32.

(46) language. He argues that students demand structure-based instruction because they find it familiar, it makes them feel secure, and it makes them think they are learning the language (Krahnke, p. 25). Another very important drawback to a structural syllabus mentioned by Krahnke is related to the grading problems mentioned already. Structural instruction limits the students to use only the structures they have been taught. Students have to be controlled in their use of the language, and their mistakes have to be accepted until they receive the appropriate instruction. For example, in an essay, only the structures seen during the course will be evaluated, and mistakes made in those structures will be counted as wrong and any other kind of mistake will be accepted. Krahnke's opinion is that : "The low transferability of structural knowledge to actual language behavior severely limits its application in language teaching settings, at least to language instruction whose goal is the ability to function in the language .... A more complex, and more common role far structural content is to serve as the organizing framework far other types of instructional language contents such as situation, notions, and functions .... " (p. 26-17).. 2.2.2. Notional/Functional Syllabus "A notional/functional syllabus is one in which the content of language teaching is a collection of functions that are performed when language is used, or of the notions that language is used to express" (Krahnke, p. 1O). Sorne examples of functions are: infarming, agreeing, apologizing, requesting, promising etc. Examples of notions are: size, age, comparison, time, etc.. 33.

(47) This kind of syllabus has been associated with communicative language teaching which, as Krahnke says, has been referred to as a method, but it is a combination of different approaches. According to Krahnke, the notional/functional syllabus is the best known of contemporary language teaching syllabi. In this kind of syllabus, says Krahnke, the language is not studied in isolation from its use, but rather the language teaching includes infarmation on how and far what purposes and in what ways the language is used (p. 29). The notional/functional syllabus considers the functions of the language as primary and the farm as secondary. Krahnke says that a notion or function can be associated with a farm. Far example, the notion of future tense can be taught by using the function of promising (Krahnke, p. 30). According to Krahnke, the notional/functional syllabus is considered communicative because discourse analysis is required in arder to select the syllabus content. Another reason far calling it communicative is that the combination of farm and meaning in the language instruction will increase communicative ability. The selection of material depends on the linguistic needs of the students (Krahnke, p.33).. 2.2.2.1. Positive Characteristics of the Notional/Functional Syllabus According to Finocchiaro and Brumfit, infarmation about language use increases the usefulness of the language instruction. Krahnke says that if a notional/functional syllabus is designed and used appropriately, students will have more experience knowing what structures accomplish which linguistic tasks in the new language and will have more exposure to real interaction in the target language. In a notional/functional syllabus, the learner is able to visualize 34.

(48) the language more as a communicative system and not only as a group of rules (Krahnke, p. 35).. 2.2.2.2. Negative Characteristics of the Notional/Functional Syllabus Krahnke mentions sorne negative aspects about the notional/functional syllabus. The first negative aspect that Krahnke mentions is that if form and function pairing are taught in isolation, this will do little to develop communicative ability in the student. A second weakness according to Krahnke is that notional/functional instruction is less generalizable than a structural syllabus due to the fact that the content is tied to specifics of use. He continuas stating a third problem related to the length of the utterances in a notional/functional syllabus. This kind of syllabus includes short utterances, and the student becomes unable to use the language in long units of discourse.. A fourth negative feature related to the notional/functional syllabus is that it teaches what has been called routines or patterns, that is, short utterances used in a specific situation. These patterns, as Krahnke says, are learned as what he calls, "frozen phrases," and they will be used as unanalyzed patterns instead of productiva language structures (Krahnke, p. 32). Krahnke argues that the notional/functional syllabus is not better than structural instruction because it offers no interactional experience. Nevertheless, he states that "when combinad with a more interactional methodology and an acquisition-based theory of language, notional/functional instructional content may lend to more functional ability" (p.39).. 2.2.3. Situational Syllabus The situational syllabus is a collection of real or imaginary situations that 35.

(49) are used to teach language. A situation involves severa! participants that use a number of functions combined into a discourse. Sorne examples of situations are: visiting the dentist, complaining to the landlord, ordering food in a restaurant, asking directions, meeting someone, etc. In a situational syllabus the instructional content is organized in terms of situations, usually presented through dialogues. These dialogues can be created or taken from real life situations.. 2.2.3.1. Positive Characteristics of the Situational Syllabus Krahnke states that the situational syllabus prometes communicative ability in the student. Transfer occurs because students are taught according to predictable settings. Another advantage of this syllabus is that a situation presents both form and meaning. Students are able to hear and to use the forms in context and not as isolated structures. This allows the student to know how language is used in longer units of discourse. Krahnke also says that situational instruction is a good non-didactic way for a learner to know more about the cultural and social aspects of the language and to see how native speakers act and use the language (Krahnke, p. 45).. 2.2.3.2. Negative Characteristics of the Situational Syllabus Krahnke says that it is difficult to create real or authentic material. Extensive use of artificial situations will hinder transfer because students are not able to create and negotiate. Another weakness found in this kind of syllabus is that it can be inappropriate in instructional settings where target cultural aspects are not considered important by the students.. 36. Situations can produce objectional.

(50) foreign values for example, and this will cause a low acceptance of the language in the student. A situational syllabus also has grading and sequencing problems. There is very little information on how to determine the difficulty of the situations and on how to organize them in an instructional syllabus. "Sequencing can reflect sorne natural chain of events (buying the ticket, getting on a train ..... ), but it is difficult to control language that might occur in such sequences without again resorting to artificiality" (Krahnke, p. 46). Krahnke goes on to say that a situational syllabus is more useful when combined with other kinds of instructional content and when the objective is to practice new material in a realistic way or to give students the opportunity to create their own discourse in a specific situation. He says that this type of syllabus is used with childen who are not ready for formal language instruction (p. 47).. 2.2.4. Skill-Based Syllabus According to Krahnke, very little is known about the skill-based syllabus because it is not considered a separate kind of instructional content by the language teaching literature. In this kind of syllabus ''the content of the language teaching is a collection of specific abilities that may play a part in using language .... Skilled-based syllabi group linguistic competences (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, sociolinguistics, and discourse) together into generalized types of behavior such as listening to spoken language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving effective oral. 37.

(51) presentations, reading texts for the main idea or supporting ideas, and so on" (p. 11 ). The term "skill" has been defined by Krahnke as "a specific way of using language that combines structural and functional ability but exists independently of specific setting or situations" (p. 49). This refers to reading, writing, speaking and listening skills. The degree to which a student becomes proficient in any of these tour skills depends on the individual ability of each student. For example, sorne students may be better readers than others and this all depends on naturally developed abilities (Krahnke, p. 49). A skill-based syllabus includes behavioral objectives, that is, things that the student can do as a result of instruction. The student is trained to use the language in specific settings. For example, students in higher education might need to be taught specific skills such as note-taking, skimming, scanning, etc. Skill-based syllabi, Krahnke says, have been used in English for specific purposes where learners have clearly defined what they need in order perform in the target language. This kind of program is also used for immigrants and refugees in the United States where the students need to be competent in society and in a work situation in a short period of time. Skill-based instruction reflects an approach where the skills are taught together with instruction that may develop global language abilities. For example, a reading skill (scanning or skimming) may be presented together with extensiva reading material; hopefully, the learner will acquire the specific skill together with the global ability to use the language (Krahnke, p.52).. 2.2.4.1. Positiva Characteristics of the Skill-Based Syllabus This kind of syllabus is very helpful when the student needs to acquire very. 38.

(52) specific uses of the language. A student that is about to start higher education might need specific training in reading skills, and this type of syllabus is also very useful for those learners who need to acquire specific skills in daily-life activities (transportation, food, health, etc.). So, as Krahnke says, the majar strength of the skill-based syllabus is efficiency and relevance of instruction. Students who know exactly what they need will feel motivated towards the instruction (Krahnke, p. 53).. 2.2.4.2. Negative Characteristics of the Skill-Based Syllabus A negative aspect of the skill-based syllabus that has been found is that the more specific and specialized the instruction is, the more unlikely it is to reinforce general language proficiency. According to Krahnke, this means that this specialized instruction will be just an efficient way to obtain specific language abilities instead of general proficiency. The skill-based syllabus is applicable in language programs or vocational programs that prepare students for academic work. Krahnke states that a skillbased syllabus is not appropriate for beginning-level students because these students have broader needs (Krahnke, p. 54).. 2.2.5. Task- Based Syllabus In a task-based syllabus, the teaching is not organized around linguistic features but rather around specific tasks or activites that the students need to perform while using the language. The goal of a task-based syllabus is to instruct the student in how to complete a process. Sorne examples of these kinds of tasks are the following: applying for a job, talking with a social worker, getting housing information over the telephone, reading a text, etc.. 39.

Figure

Table eleven  shows the  answers for question  eleven  on  the
Table three shows the  results of  question  number three  in  the  teacher survey which  asks teachers how much their English  course is  training  students for studying  in  an  English-speaking  country

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