1
UNIVERSIDAD DE ALMERÍA
Facultad de Humanidades
GRADO EN ESTUDIOS INGLESES
Curso Académico: 2015/2016
Convocatoria (Junio/Septiembre): Junio
Título del Trabajo Fin de Grado:
The Multiple Intelligences Theory and its application in the EFL classroom
‐ Autora: Cardozo Pascual, Natalia Belén
2 ABSTRACT
The Multiple Intelligences theory by Howard Gardner posits a new concept of
intelligence based on eight different types, which breaks away from the traditional view
of intelligence as a single unit. Since its inception, this theory has had a good reception
in the pedagogic field, where it can be used to help students with different
“intelligences” to learn in a more effective and egalitarian way. In this study, I am going
to describe and explain such an innovative theory, contrast it with former ones, and
analyze its possible practical application in the EFL classroom as proposed by different
authors.
RESUMEN
En este trabajo me voy a ocupar de la teoría de las Inteligencias Múltiples,
desarrollada por el psicólogo Howard Gardner. Esta teoría habla de la existencia de
ocho tipos diferentes de inteligencias en cada persona, rompiendo con el concepto
tradicional de inteligencia que la consideraba como una unidad indivisible. Desde sus
inicios, encuentra una buena acogida dentro de la rama educativa, por fomentar el tener
en cuenta las distintas inteligencias de los alumnos y así favorecer un aprendizaje
mucho más efectivo e igualitario. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo tanto describir
esta teoría desde el punto de vista teórico como diferenciarla de otras anteriores, y
analizar su posible aplicación en el aula de inglés como lengua extranjera propuesta por
3 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction..………...4
2. The MI theory………...6
2.1.Theoretical background: concept of intelligence……….…6
2.2.Features of the MI theory……….……8
2.3.MI in the pedagogical field………11
3. Other theories………...15
3.1.Multiple Intelligences vs. Learning Styles……….…15
3.2.Language Aptitude……….…17
4. Research……….…19
4.1.MI testing………...19
4.1.1. “Intelligence-fair” measurement……….……20
4.1.2. Pencil-and-paper tests………..21
4.2.Critical approach………23
5. Practical application of the MI theory………...…24
5.1.Exercises……….25
5.2.MI lesson planning……….28
6. Conclusions………...………30
7. Bibliography and webliography
8. Appendices
4
THE MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY AND ITS
APPLICATION IN THE EFL CLASSROOM
Natalia Belén Cardozo Pascual
1. INTRODUCTION
I am the eldest of four sisters, and many times I have helped them with their
homework; so from an early age I have been aware that not all of us learn the same way,
and that each person has their own strengths and weaknesses when trying to assimilate
new information. That is the reason why I have always had a special interest for both
individual differences and teaching. This interest led me last year to attend a seminar on
methodology and didactics of foreign languages, in which I heard about the theory of
multiple intelligences for the first time.
Gardner makes known his theory of multiple intelligences in 1983 with the
publication of his book Frames of Mind, which presents a harsh critique of the
traditional concept of intelligence, defending the existence of eight different
intelligences in each of us. If we think about this concept for a moment, there is one
aspect that has always been familiar to us, and it is to assume that there are people who
are more, or less, intelligent than others. Even today we can see that those people who
are good at maths and / or linguistics are considered, somehow, as being intellectually
superior to others. This is due to the meaning that has been given for a long time to the
concept of intelligence. If we take into account this traditional concept within the field
of education, those who show a less developed linguistic and / or logical-mathematical
intelligence are doomed to school failure, though fortunately not in the personal sphere.
The MI theory advocates for the importance of individual differences, explaining
that we have eight intelligences (some more developed than others) and that each person
has a unique set of skills and abilities that highlights its uniqueness. This had a marked
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that increasingly focus on the student (their individual needs and preferences) and on
the conditions in which the learning process takes place.
Our education system is based on the assumption that we are all the same, and
therefore it attempts to address all students equally and equitably (Gardner, 1999). But
we are all different, and if you try to teach everyone in the same way, you are
unconsciously only benefiting those who respond favourably to the methods used.
Contrariwise, if a topic is presented in multifarious forms, all students have access to it
although each one in their own way. This new theory invites us to practise teaching
considering not only the academic curriculum but also the students’ profiles.
Based on my personal experience, I have seen that at the end of our secondary
education we cannot even hold a basic conversation in the target language even though
we may have been studying English for at least five years long. This fact led me to
decide to write this discussion, in order to reach a better understanding of how our
minds work and how it could improve the teaching of English as a foreign language.
When learning a new language, there are many aspects that are of utmost importance,
such as oral and written comprehension, oral and written production, etc.; thus, teachers
make use of different techniques to develop all the skills successfully. Verifying our
English level after studying it for so long clearly shows us that something is not
working as it should.
Throughout this discussion I will explain in detail what the theory of multiple
intelligences is, as well as other theories that demonstrate and defend the individual
differences. I also introduce different methods of measuring the eight intelligences, and
finally, I will take care of their possible application in the classroom of English as a
6 2. THE MI THEORY
The theory of multiple intelligences was developed by the psychologist Howard
Gardner in the early 1980’s. This theory posits that individuals possess eight (or more)
intelligences, breaking away from the traditional concept of intelligence. In fact, to
understand this revolutionary theory, it is important to know more about the concept of
intelligence throughout history. In this part of my discussion I am going to talk about
this concept, explain the MI theory and present its reception in the pedagogical field.
2.1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND: CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE
We have to travel back in time, to 1860 and Charles Darwin, to observe the first
trace of attention to intellectual traits. His theory of evolution contributed to the
reflection of numerous scholars on the intellectual differences across species and, later
on, in human beings. It was in 1861 when the French physician Pierre Paul Broca, after
examining the brains of aphasic patients (persons with speech and language disorders
resulting from brain injuries), determined that the speech production center is located in
the ventroposterior region of the frontal lobes (nowadays known as Broca’s area). But it
was Galton, Darwin’s cousin, the first to establish an anthropometric laboratory for the
purpose of assembling empirical evidence of people’s intellectual differences (Gardner,
1999:11).
The first intelligence test was created in the early 1900s by the French
psychologist Alfred Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon. They were asked by the
French Ministry of Education to develop a means of determining which primary grade
students were “at risk” for failure (Armstrong, 2009:5) so as to receive remedial
attention. They administered numerous test questions to children in order to predict
those who could have learning difficulties at school. As Gardner explains in Intelligence
7 toward measuring verbal memory, verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, appreciation of logical sequences, and ability to state how one would solve problems of daily living.
In 1912, the German psychologist Wilhelm Stern came up with the name and
measure of the Intelligenz Quotient – intelligence quotient (IQ) - or the ratio of one’s
mental age to one’s chronological age (Gardner, 1999:12). It did not take long before
these tests became largely popular in the United States, but they were provided with
their own touch. Whereas Binet’s test had been administered on a one-to-one basis, in
America these texts were prepared to be carried out first in a paper-and-pencil version
and later in a machine-scorable one. Through such tests, people were able to get
information about the IQs of mentally deficient people or putative young geniuses,
among others.
The intelligence tests were also harshly criticized. One of the critics was the
American journalist Walter Lippmann who denounced their superficiality and cultural
biases, and he noted the risks associated with assessing an individual’s intellectual potential via a single, brief oral or paper-and-pencil method (Gardner, 1999:13).
There was a long-standing debate within the area of intelligence testing. On the
one hand, those influenced by the British psychologist Charles Spearman, who defended
the existence of a general overriding intelligence (factor ‘g’) which is based on
linguistic, mathematical and spatial abilities that can be measured by an intelligence
test. On the other hand, the supporters of the American psychometrician Thurstone
(1938) and ‘fox’, the idea that we have different and independent primary mental
faculties that are measured by different tasks. Thurstone differentiates seven primary
mental abilities: verbal comprehension, word fluency, numerical fluency, spatial
visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning–which bring us
closer to the MI theory.
The psychologist Robert Sternberg was more interested in the mental processes
employed when responding to test items. He defends that we have to pay attention to
the test taker’s mental steps in solving a problem (Gardner, 1999). Sternberg (1985)
distinguishes three types of intelligences: componential (analytical
subtheory-microstructure of solving problems), practical (contextual subtheory-intelligent
behaviour is defined by the sociocultural context) and experiential (creative
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David Perkins provides intelligence with the characteristic of being learnable, i.e.
a person can master numerous strategies, acquire different kinds of expertise and learn
to negotiate in different contexts. In this way, we are distancing ourselves from those
theories that represent intelligence as a general factor which a person could do little to
change: we are facing different types of intelligences or faculties that cannot only be
learned, but also improved.
2.2 MI THEORY
Howard Gardner published Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
in 1983. With this book he dared the traditional psychological view of intelligence as a
single capacity, proposing that all individuals possess seven independent intelligences:
linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, musical, interpersonal and
intrapersonal. He defends that, by combining these intelligences, people are able to
solve problems or create products with different levels of proficiency. In 1999, he
published Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century, including a
redefinition of the concept presenting intelligence as a biopsychological potential to
process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture (Gardner, 1999:33); and he also explains
this change as follows:
This modest change in wording is important because it suggests that intelligences
are not things that can be seen or counted. Instead, they are potentials-presumably,
neural ones- that will or will not be activated, depending upon the values of a
particular culture, the opportunities available in that culture, and the personal
decisions made by individuals and/or their families, schoolteachers and others.
(Gardner, 1999:34)
He also adds an eighth intelligence (naturalistic) and takes into consideration the
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book Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom (2009) each one of these eight
intelligences as shown below:
Linguistic: The capacity to use words effectively. This intelligence includes the
manipulation of the language’s structure and pragmatics, as well as the ability to
use language to convince others (rhetoric), to remember information
(mnemonic), and to inform and to talk about language (metalanguage). It is the
intelligence characteristic of politicians, storytellers, poets, journalists, orators,
etc.
Logical-mathematical: It refers to the capacity to use numbers effectively and to
reason well. It embraces sensitivity to logical patterns and relationships,
statements and propositions (if-then, cause-effect), functions, and other related abstractions (Armstrong, 2009:6). Some of the processes used in this
intelligence are categorization, inference, generalization, calculation, and
hypothesis testing. People like mathematicians, tax accountants, computer
programmers and scientists stand out in this type of intelligence.
Spatial: The ability to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to
reconstruct or modify those perceptions. This intelligence involves sensitivity to
colour, line, shape, form, space, and the relationship between them. Typical of
this faculty are the capacity to visualize, to graphically represent visual or
spatial ideas, and to orient oneself appropriately (Armstrong, 2009:6). People
with this kind of intelligence are often interior decorators, architects, artists,
chess players, pilots, among others.
Bodily-kinaesthetic: the capacity to use one’s whole body to express ideas or
feelings and to skilfully produce and manipulate objects. This intelligence
includes physical abilities such as coordination, balance, strength, flexibility,
and speed. Actors, mimes, athletes, dancers, sculptors, mechanics, or surgeons
are characterized by this faculty. Torresan (2010:15) indicates the importance of
this intelligence in the development of linguistic competences. In particular, the
action of pointing is fundamental to the development of symbolic and representative abilities that constitute the fundamental basis of communication.
Musical: The ability to perceive, discriminate, and express musical forms.
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colour of a musical piece. One can understand music intuitively, technically, or
both. A music aficionado, a composer, or a performer has this faculty.
Interpersonal: involves the capacity to perceive and distinguish the moods,
intentions, motivations, and feelings of other people. One possesses sensitivity
to facial expressions, voice, and gestures. A person with this faculty can, for
example, persuade others to follow a certain line of action.
Intrapersonal: it has to do with self-knowledge and the ability to act adaptively
on the basis of that knowledge (Armstrong, 2009:7). It includes being aware of
one’s strengths and limitations; as well as one’s own mood, intentions,
motivations, and desires. The capacity to self-discipline, self-understanding, and
self-esteem are part of this intelligence.
Naturalistic: Ability to recognize and classify the flora and fauna, as well as
natural phenomena (e.g. cloud formation). If we take into consideration the
urban environment, it also includes the capacity to discriminate among
inanimate objects (e.g. cars, sneakers, and CD covers).
As Gardner (1999) commented, some scholars wondered why he called them
intelligences and not talents or aptitudes, as well as what it is based on. In order to
decide what counts as an intelligence and what does not, he delineated eight criteria
-based on psychology, observation of unusual human beings, anthropology, cultural
studies and the biological sciences- which these faculties should meet. Those candidate
faculties that met well the following criteria can be called a human intelligence (taken
from Gardner):
1. Potential isolation by brain damage
2. An evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility
3. An identifiable core operation or set of operations
4. Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system
5. A distinctive developmental history and a definable set of expert
“end-state performances”
6. The existence of savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals
7. Support from experimental psychological tasks
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There can be distinguished two important innovations in his theory; on the one
hand, the widening of the term “intelligence”, so that it would comprise numerous
capacities reflecting its plurality/diversity against the former idea of a single faculty
measured by psychometric instruments (IQ tests). On the other hand, he argues that
these capacities are rather independent of one another but they work together when we
want to accomplish a task.
It is important to take into account that all of us have, thanks to evolution, a
unique combination of intelligences; thus, no two people have either the same
intelligences or the same combination of them. Each of these intelligences derives from
our genetic heritage and the environment into which we are acculturated (our personal
conditions). In this way, we connect them according to our inclinations and culture’s
preferences (Gardner, 1999:45).
2.3MI IN THE PEDAGOGICAL FIELD
In spite of this theory not being addressed to educators, it was well received by
professionals of the pedagogical field. The marked impact of MI theory in the field of
education and psychology changed the way the mind was interpreted, considering that
they were facing a new concept that called attention to the complexity of the human
mind.
Armstrong (2009) defends that the MI theory should be understood as a
philosophy of education and not as established strategies; and Gardner (2007:7) affirms
that his theory is best thought of as a tool, rather than as an educational goal.
This study has to do with foreign language learning/teaching and, according to
Arnold and Fonseca, this new perspective offered by the MI proposes that language
learning
can be favoured by using a variety of learning tasks which call upon diverse
intelligences. The teacher offers a choice of tasks, not to teach to specific
12 their preferred way, as well as to promote the development of their other
intelligences (Arnold and Fonseca, 2004:126)
When we learn a foreign/second language, the linguistic intelligence is developed
and all the intelligences can be used in order to acquire proficiency of the target
language. Now follows a brief explanation of how Arnold and Fonseca (2004) present
this cooperation among the different faculties.
Musical:The musical-rhythmic intelligence has to do with the ability to perceive and appreciate rhythm, pitch and melody (Arnold and Fonseca, 2004:126). Music
produces not only physical effects on us, such us adaptation of breathing to the musical
rhythms, but also psychological ones, since it induces a certain type of mood
(Benenzon, 1995). The use of music in a second language classroom helps students to
concentrate, stimulates creative processes, eliminates distracting sounds and favours a
relaxed and motivating classroom atmosphere.
The visual-spatial intelligence is the ability to create mental images, which have a
strong influence on reasoning (Arnold, 1999). By means of imagery the students build
connections between word and image which benefits their access to knowledge, as well
as improves their reading comprehension and memory. Mental images are also a good
learning strategy, since visualizing while trying to understand a text is crucial for
building up meaning (Tomlinson, 1998). Moreover, visual teaching aids, such as
pictures or slides, facilitate information retrieval.
Logical-mathematical: The reasoning strategies are an important aspect of this
intelligence, and Armstrong (1999) recommends their use in the classroom through
exercises like finding analogies, proposing and describing the characteristics of a
possible solution to a problem, generalizations or specializations. As Arnold and
Fonseca explains (2004:127) in the language classroom problem-solving tasks are
useful as learners focus mainly on meaning, but through constant rereading of the text to solve the problem, they acquire a familiarity with the vocabulary and structures used.
The bodily-kinaesthetic refers to the control of physical movements and the
skilful manipulation of objects (Torresan, 2010). According to Rogers (1975:40) our
13 themselves so completely to “educating from the neck up” that this narrowness is resulting in serious social consequences. Arnold and Fonseca (2004) also highlight this
problem arguing:
In many classrooms, students sit in rows for hours and are asked to pay attention
to verbal input. The human need for movement is totally overlooked and therefore,
its potential value for creating higher energy levels and maintaining attention is
greatly reduced. (Arnold and Fonseca, 2004: 128)
In order to apply this intelligence in the English class, teachers can use role-plays,
games, and activities related to group dynamics. I think that games like “guess the
word”, in which mimic is used, favour the motivation of the students, and create a more
relaxed and pleasant classroom atmosphere.
The naturalistic intelligence has to do with the capacity to make classifications
regarding flora and fauna. As Torresan explains (2010: 16), this intelligence involves the
recognition of patterns that go beyond nature. In order to enhance this capacity in the
classroom, Arnold and Fonseca (2004) recommend activities such as brainstorming, or
semantic maps related to the environment, the natural world.
The interpersonal intelligence involves the knowledge of others, the ability to
work cooperatively and to communicate effectively. This faculty is strongly connected
to language learning since it is a social process whose main purpose is to develop
communicative competence (Hymes 1971, Canale and Swain 1980). The social
interaction of the students in language classes is of utmost importance, and cooperative
learning is a method that helps to develop it (Casal, 2002). When students work together
in small groups to carry out a task, they learn how to negotiate in order to convince
others of their point of view and to understand the position of the other members of the
group.
According to García Sánchez (1999) working in groups creates an atmosphere
where the students have to collaborate with each other in order to gain a common goal,
favouring the significance of collaboration instead of an individual competitive attitude.
14 A positive group atmosphere can have a beneficial effect on the morale,
motivation, and self-image of its members, and thus significantly affect their
learning, by developing in them a positive attitude to the language being
learned, to the learning process, and to themselves as learners. (Hadfiel,
1992:10)
The intrapersonal intelligence concerns the knowledge of oneself (metacognitive
knowledge) and in language learning, it refers to the knowledge about language itself
and the strategies to be used in order to accomplish certain types of tasks (Wenden,
1987). This intelligence can be also related to learning styles, which imply the
awareness of personal capacities and limitations in order to enhance personal
performance (Christison, 1999; Reid, 1995, 1998). As Williams and Burden declare,
metacognition involves
knowledge of factors relating to the self, and the way in which these affect the use
of cognitive process. Thus an awareness of one's personality, feelings, motivation
and attitudes and learning style at any particular moment would be included within
such a concept of metacognitive awareness (Williams and Burden, 1997:155)
One of the tasks proposed by Robles (2002), in order to put to work this
intelligence in the language classroom, is to require learners to reflect on the colour, size
15 3. OTHER THEORIES
As we have seen, the MI theory addresses to the uniqueness of every person, but it
is not the only one that defends the diversity of human beings. In this section, I am
going to talk about learning styles and differentiate them from Gardner’s theory, as well
as explain the concept of language aptitude.
3.1 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES VS. LEARNING STYLES
The MI theory is often misunderstood and used interchangeably with learning
styles; therefore, I decided to devote a section of my discussion to explain the difference
between them. Firstly, it is needed to elucidate that multiple intelligences represent
different intellectual abilities; whereas a learning style has to do with the way we use
our own abilities to learn new information. Thus, Gardner explains that
since intelligences operate on specific content (e.g. language, music, the
apprehension of other persons), they can be separated from so-called “across the
board” or ‘horizontal’ capacities like attention, motivation, and cognitive style.
Whereas these general capacities are thought to apply across a range of situations,
the ‘vertical’ intelligences are used by individuals to make sense of specific
content, information, or objects in the world. (Gardner, 2006:12)
We all have different learning profiles and we use those cognitive strategies that
correspond with our own preferences. These strategies are so diverse that there is no
common agreement about the number of styles (Torresan, 2010); some scholars
describe a style as a stable characteristic (fixed model of behaviour) and others defend
that we switch styles depending on the task, situation, context in which the learning
process occurs, etc. (Reid, 1987). Torresan (2010:11) explains that among the most
16 introverted/extroverted; kinesics/spatial/musical. Considering these dualisms, there can
be distinguished: the bodily-kinaesthetic style, visual style, auditory style, extroverted
style, introverted style, and analytical style.
The MI theory and learning styles seem, to some extent, to overlap and some
similarities between them can be found (Torresan, 2010). In the following table we can
see the interrelation of styles and intelligences:
LEARNING STYLE INTELLIGENCE
Bodily-kinaesthetic Style Bodily-kinaesthetic Intelligence
Visual Style Spatial Intelligence
Auditory Style Musical Intelligence
Extroverted Style Interpersonal Intelligence
Introverted Style Intrapersonal Intelligence
Analytical Style Logical-mathematical Intelligence
Table 1. Possible overlap between the two theories (based on Torresan, 2010)
Considering the difficulty that trying to draw a clear distinction between them
implies, and in order to elucidate it in a practical way, Torresan (2010:19) proposes the
following two situations:
a) The teacher uses background music during the writing activity. b) The students create a written composition inspired by a sound track.
In the first case (a), the teacher provides a background stimulus in order to create
an emotional atmosphere; while in the second example (b), the teacher integrates in the
same exercise the linguistic and musical codes; in this way, the student has to
concentrate on the stimulus to accomplish the assignment (Torresan, 2010). The author
shows us, in the first situation, an example of activity based on learning styles; and in
the second, a task derived from the theory of multiple intelligences.
In this way, activities in which students work in pairs or in groups are aimed to
extroverted students (extroverted style) and have little to do with the development of
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linguistic intelligence, which refers to a refined use of language and to a strong
sensitivity towards the nuances of meaning, explaining that these qualities are not dependent on how much the student is an extrovert (Torresan, 2010:19).
Activities related to learning styles are defined as peripheral stimuli and those
having to do with multiple intelligences are intermediate stimuli. As Torresan posits
(2010:20), in some cases the peripheral stimulus can become an intermediate stimulus
for students more competent in the subject. For example, if teachers use background
music (peripheral stimuli), they can disturb the performance of a student with a high
musical intelligence; that is to say, the person becomes more concentrated on the music
that on the task (Torresan, 2010).
3.2LANGUAGE APTITUDE
Throughout this discussion, we have seen and verified how different we are. In
this section, we are going to talk about another important concept having to do with
individual differences in the EFL classroom: language aptitude.
Carroll (1959, 1981) described language aptitude in terms of four components:
phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability,
and associative memory (Biedroń and Pawlak, 2016). At present, it is considered as a
combination of cognitive and perceptual abilities (Robinson 2002; Skehan 1986). As
Kormos (2013:134) points out, aptitude is a complex construct consisting of several
cognitive characteristics, and among these characteristics we find: pattern recognition,
grammatical sensitivity, noticing the gap, memory for contingent text, and deep
semantic processing.
This concept is also misunderstood and sometimes it is used interchangeably with
other terms. Therefore, in order to explain it and differentiate it from others, Biedroń
and Pawlak (2016) constructed the following table based on Renzulli (1986), Carroll
18
TERM DEFINITION
Ability
Actual potential – what a person is able to do provided environmental conditions and psychophysical states are optimal Aptitude Cognitive ability that is possibly predictive of certain kinds of future learning success
Giftedness Untrained, outstanding innate ability
Talent Superior mastery of an innate ability
Table 2. Classification of terminology (Biedrón and Pawlak (2016:115)
Cognitive abilities concerning language aptitude can be divided into two groups:
on the one hand, the domain of explicit cognitive processes which encompass abilities
such as rote memory, analytical ability, and explicit inductive learning. As Granena
(2015:578) enunciates, these are cognitive abilities that are especially relevant to learn
a language intentionally through reasoning, deliberate hypothesis testing, and memorization. On the other hand, those related to implicit cognitive processes-
understood as learning in the absence of 1) conscious intention to learn, 2) conscious
awareness of the fact that we are learning, and 3) conscious attribution of any noticed change to the effects of learning (Jiménez, 2002:62; quoted by Granena, 2015).
In the field of individual differences, language aptitude and cognitive styles
(frequently included under the term ‘learning styles’) show some degree of relation
(Dörnyei and Skehan, 2003). Contemporary studies posit a relationship between:
Rational-analytical cognitive style and explicit language aptitude: a person
who learns analyzing linguistic material, i.e. analysis-oriented learners.
Experiential-intuitive cognitive styles and implicit language aptitude,
learning by engaging in communicative language use (“talk-to-learn”
approach) (Granena, 2015:579). Learners are not aware of the rules, they
are memory oriented, that is to say, they store and associate language
clusters with particular meanings and situations (Granena, 2015:580).
In this way, we can distinguish two different types of learners: those who are
analysis-oriented, and those memory-oriented. The students belonging to the first type
learn a foreign language in a conscious, reflective way, i.e. paying attention to the rules;
while those of the second group learn through practice, they gain knowledge through
their own personal experience. Granena (2015:580) clarifies: this does not mean that
19 exist at the expense of the other, but that there would be a predisposition to process information more frequently in one way than another.
Being conscious of the different cognitive styles preferences and aptitude profiles
of foreign language learners can help teachers to instruct matching learners’ cognitive
strengths, and therefore, obtaining better results.
4. RESEARCH
We have already seen the importance of knowing the strengths and weaknesses of
the learners, but how can teachers know which profiles are there in their groups? In
order to answer to this question there have emerged different methods of measuring
these faculties. Since the central topic of my discussion is the theory of Multiple
Intelligences, in this part I present various tools used to measure the intelligences a
person has and a critical discussion.
4.1. MI TESTING
In spite of emerging as a critique of the standard psychometric approach (IQ
tests), since the MI theory emerged, Gardner has been frequently asked about the
possible construction of a set of tests for each of the intelligences (Gardner, 1995, 1999,
2013). He asserts that having a battery of MI tests is not consistent with the major tenets
of the theory (Gardner, 1999: 80); and he also adds:
20
In this way, if someone wants to measure the spatial intelligence of an individual,
the person being measured should accomplish activities, such as, exploring a terrain and
seeing if he/she finds his/her way around, or reading blueprints (Gardner, 1995, 1999,
2013). As we can see, the “intelligent-fair” way of measurement of the eight
intelligences can be difficult to carry out; we need to have diverse materials at our
disposal, as well as the capacity to provide an appropriate context.
In order to show the differences between the traditional standardized method of
assessment (IQ tests) and the MI measurement approach proposed by Gardner, the
following table was constructed by Davis, Christodoulou, Seider and Gardner
(2013:27):
TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENTS MI ASSESSMENTS
Over-reliance on linguistic and logical mathematical abilities and measures
Sample the gamut of intelligences and domains
Deficit-focused Identify relative and absolute strengths
Minimal intrinsic value to activity/tasks Immediate feedback to students; meaningful for students; materials with which children are familiar Performance captured in a single score Scores on a range of tasks, across several domains. for each intelligences
Detached from context Ecological validity; Present problems in the context of
problem solving; Instructive for teachers Table 3. Assessment characteristics for the multiple intelligences and traditional counterparts (Davis et al.
2013) (originally adapted from Chen and Gardner, 1997)
4.1.1. “INTELLIGENCE-FAIR” MEASUREMENT
As reviewed earlier, Gardner proposes intelligent-fair tests to measure the
different intelligences. Due to the amount of measurement methods devised since the
publication of his first book Frames of Mind: The Theory of multiple intelligences
(Gardner, 1985), (many of them based on misinterpretations of the theory), he suggests
three venues: Project Spectrum, Explorama, and Makey Makey (Gardner, 2013).
Project Spectrum: this project was initially developed as an
assessment-and-curriculum program for preschool children (Gardner, 1999:81) under
the direction of Gardner and his colleagues at Harvard University’s Project
http://www.pz.harvard.edu/projects/project-21
spectrum). It consists in classrooms equipped with different materials that
encourage kids to perform numerous activities, providing information
about the strengths and weaknesses of the users (Davis et al. 2013).
Armstrong (2009) presents an example of one of these activities aimed at
measuring of the logical-mathematical intelligence, in which there is a
dinosaur board involving rolling dice, counting moves, and calculating strategies (Armstrong, 2009:134).
Explorama: is a theme park in Denmark (see
http://universe.dk/en/experience/attractions/explorama/), consisting in fifty
games designed on the basis of the MI theory in which, by playing,
intelligences people are strong at can be highlighted, as well as those that
should be improved (Gardner, 2013). Among the varied activities we can
find games such us, “a calm hand” in which one has to get a destination
without touching the wire, or “Laser track” where one has to make his/her
way through intricate lasers.
Makey Makey: is an application (see http://www.makeymakey.com/) that
gives individuals the opportunity to create experiences which draw on the several intelligences. Informed observers can watch users at work and infer the nature of their intellectual profiles. (Gardner, 2013:8). People can
buy and use their easy-to-use inventor kits and create their own products.
4.1.2. PAPER-AND-PENCIL TESTS
The Multiple Intelligences Developmental Assessment Scales (MIDAS) was
developed in 1987 by Branton Shearer in order to determine how intelligent a person is.
These tests are the best known and they have been used in many MI research projects
(Davis et al. 2013). The MIDAS tests are questionnaires based on the MI theory created
to be self-completed, and whose results can be later analyzed by psychologists,
counsellors, and teachers (Shearer, 2012).
These questionnaires have an interview format composed by numerous questions,
22
“usually”, “often”, “all the time”, and “I don’t know”. People assessed have to answer
all the questions with the option they consider describes their situation more accurately.
In the following example, taken from MIDAS™ Sample Questions (appendix 1), we can
see one of the items constructed to assess the musical intelligence:
1. As a child, did you have a strong liking for music or music classes?
A= A little.
B= Sometimes.
C= Usually.
D= Often.
E= All the time.
F= I don't know.
Shearer explains in his website (see http://www.miresearch.org/) that after
answering all the questions, it can be estimated people’s intellectual disposition in the
eight intelligences, twenty-five kinds of skills associated with them, and descriptions of
particular intellectual activities and actual outcomes.
As said, the MIDAS tests are the best known but many other questionnaires have
been created to measure the several intelligences. In appendix 2, we can see the Multiple
Intelligences Inventory created by Walter McKenzie in 1999. It is divided into three
parts: the first one is divided into nine sections composed by ten statements each, in
which we have to place a “1” (one) in those that we feel that describe us better. In the
second part, we have to calculate our results which will let us know, in the third part,
what our strengths and weaknesses are.
I did myself the last example of a pencil-and-paper MI test (appendix 3) in a
seminar I attended on didactic and methodology in Germany. This test is made up of 35
statements, it has only two response choices: true (V=verdadero) or false (F=falso), and
23
include the naturalistic intelligence. It also offers, just as McKenzie’s test does, the
possibility of being aware of our intelligences through a simple calculation.
Unlike the MIDAS tests, the other two examples presented in this discussion have
only two response choices which, in my opinion, make them less precise than the
former. In addition, Shearer’s tests are considered by Gardner, to some extent, valid:
Shearer has begun to accumulate evidence that performance on the MIDAS
correlates with abilities in certain areas, as determined by other indexes. Such
findings suggest that, in addition to being a reliable measure, the measure also has
some validity. (Gardner, 2013:9)
4.2 CRITICAL APPROACH
In this section, I present Howard Gardner’s critical approach to the measurement
tools reviewed earlier: “intelligence-fair” measurement and pencil-and-paper tests.
Gardner advocates the importance of testing the intelligences in natural contexts and of
recognizing the limitations presented by static assessments (Davis et al., 2013).
In this way, he expresses his preference for the use of “intelligence-fair” tests,
since they showed strengths based on the performance of activities related to different
areas. He defends that if he had to assess someone’s intelligences, he would not be
satisfied until observing him solving problems and fashioning problems in a number of
settings (Gardner, 1999:139).
In relation with the MIDAS tests, Gardner (2013) claims that they present two
main deficiencies: on the one hand, since they are static assessments, they cannot
measure strengths but personal inclinations; and on the other hand, they are
self-completed, and therefore, they assume that people know their selves well, which is not
always true. Thus, the results of these tests can only highlight their own preferences
24
These deficiencies can also be applied to all pencil-and-paper tests since they are
based on the same interview format and they are self-completed. Gardner stresses the
importance of the distinction between individual’s preferences for
materials/intelligences and their capacities in these spheres (Gardner, 1999:81).
5. PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE MI THEORY
In this part, I talk about the practical application of the MI theory in the
pedagogical field, placing an emphasis on teaching English as a foreign language (EFL).
First of all, I consider it necessary to claim that, according to Gardner (1999, 2013), his
theory supposes a modest contribution in this domain (foreign language teaching) in
comparison to other subjects, such as, history or biology.
As reported by Gardner (2013), the MI theory can be helpful for foreign language
teaching in a few ways:
a) Youngsters probably learn languages best in different ways (Gardner,
2013:22). In my opinion, this assertion has little to do with foreign
language teaching. Considering that he defends that all of us learn in
different ways, it has more to do with learning in general and not in
particular.
b) Motivation is an important part of learning a foreign language, and the MI approach helps teachers to present topics in an attractive form (Gardner,
2013). When we learn something in the way that corresponds better to our
preferences and strengths, our motivation increases (Arnold and Fonseca,
2004).
c) Every language has certain distinctive features which are non-intuitive to those who do not speak the language (Gardner, 2013:22), for example the
four German cases (nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive). With the
help of MI approaches these difficult concepts can be conveyed in varied
25
This theory represents a new perspective in the pedagogical field since it
introduces two principal educational implications: Individualization and Pluralization
(Gardner, 2013:3). With the term individualization, he refers to the uniqueness of
human beings, since no two people have the same configuration of intelligences. Thus,
we should teach individuals in ways that they can learn and we should assess them in a way that allows them to show what they have understood and to apply their knowledge and skills in unfamiliar contexts (Gardner, 2013:3). The term pluralization implies
teaching in multiple ways. If the same topic is explained in different ways, this will not
only contribute to a better general understanding of it, but it will also reach more
students (Gardner, 2013).
5.1. EXERCISES
The eight intelligences are in turn divided into numerous sub-intelligences that are
connected with different aspects of language. Thus, if we want to apply this theory to
the teaching of EFL, we should take into account more aspects related to the linguistic
intelligence. In the following table, taken from Torresan (2010), we can see the
connection between the linguistic sub-intelligences and their corresponding aspects of
language:
Sub-intelligences of linguistic intelligence Aspects of language
linguistics Semantics / lexis
logical Morpho-syntax
intrapersonal Emotive dimension of language
interpersonal pragmatics
naturalistic Relationship among texts, among languages,
among cultures
kinaesthetic Extra-linguistic dimension of communication
musical Phonology and prosody
spatial Contextualization and visualization
26
As we can see, the linguistic intelligence is very complex, and if a person wants to
teach a foreign language, he/she has to take into account all these aspects and use
different exercises to promote the correct learning of the target language. The following
list of activities- based on Torresan (2010), Sánchez (2009), Puchta and Rinvolucri
(2005), Christison (2005), and Arnold and Fonseca (2004) - was devised to facilitate the
enrichment of linguistic intelligence, through all its sub-intelligences, in the EFL
classroom:
Logical-mathematical: discover the error in logic, clutter exercises, solving
riddles and puzzles, writing the topics of texts, writing the missing part of
a story, cause-effect activities.
Intrapersonal: personal associations noted on the margin of the text,
activation of previous knowledge during pre-comprehension, describing
habitual actions and events that have occurred, editing a self-addressed
text.
Interpersonal: investigation into the author and/or characters’ motivations,
role playing, describing classmates, rewriting a text from a new point of
view, defending a different opinion in a debate.
Naturalistic: search for analysis and differences (e.g. between the text and
the image representing it), class discussion about intercultural differences,
analyzing false friends, find the odd-word-out, comparing mother tongue
phonemes with foreign language phonemes, comparing the accents of
different English speakers.
Bodily-kinaesthetic: associate a movement to a word, mime the title of a
film for others to guess, dramatization, promoting the awareness of
muscular movements correlated with pronunciation, movement games to
re-study the lexicon (pantomime), games like “Simon says”.
Musical: rewriting the text of a song with studied vocabulary, analyzing
the rhythm of poems, look for rhythmic patterns in music in English.
Spatial: multiple choice questionnaires with images, coupling images with
27
with images, bingo (image-word), Pictionary, exercises in “find the
difference”.
There are numerous exercises that can be applied in order to teach English with
MI approaches, and many of them are known by teachers of foreign languages.
Continuing with some examples, I present the following sample exercises taken and
adapted from Puchta and Rinvolucri (2005), Christison (2005), and Arnold and Fonseca
(2004):
Christison suggests the activity “Syllable match” (see appendix 4) in her book
Multiple Intelligences and Language Learning: A Guidebook of Theory, Activities, Inventories, and Resources (2005). It is aimed at students with an English level from
intermediate to advance and I find it useful to develop vocabulary in a different way.
The students work in pairs or in groups (depending on the number of learners), they
receive an envelope with small cards with a syllable written on it (one per card). They
work together finding polysyllabic words that contain the given syllables. Then, they
compare the words they have found with the class, and finally, they choose new
polysyllabic words in order to create their own cards and give them to other groups. The
game starts again.
Arnold and Fonseca (2004) propose to mime the title of a film for others to guess
in order to use the bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence in class. I have played many times
the game “Guess the word”, which is a kind of adaptation of it, to reinforce the
vocabulary and the oral expression. The teacher asks students to write down in a sheet
of paper a word (nobody can see it) from the vocabulary recently worked on with them,
and to pass it to the person on their right. Then they have to explain the received word,
sometimes using pantomime, and the rest of the class has to guess it. The class can also
be divided into groups to create a small “competition”.
“Personal galleries” is other Christison’s activity (see appendix 5). It enhances
creativity; the students can choose an artist based on their own preferences, and practice
speaking. In my opinion, if the teacher has a large class, he/she can ask students to form
groups, for example, four or five students per group, and choose their favourite artist (a
singer, actor, writer, etc.). They prepare a short report about the artist, and then present
it orally to the rest of the class. They can be asked to prepare a short presentation at
28
The last example is the activity “Language tricks” (see appendix 6) from Puchta
and Rinvolucri (2005). It presents five examples of riddles in which students use their
linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence in order to solve them. I like this kind
of exercises because they are always pleasant, and I think they encourage a relaxed
learning atmosphere.
Many activities can be done in groups and Armstrong suggests some original
ideas to form groups in a class in the context of MI theory; two of these ideas are:
Logical-mathematical— “When I give the signal, I want you to raise between one
and five fingers. Go! Now keep those fingers raised and find three or four people
whose raised fingers combined with yours total an odd number” (…) Naturalist—
“Visualize a sheep, a pig, and a cow in a pasture. Suddenly, there is a loud noise
and two of them run off. There is only one animal left. Start making the sound of
that animal out loud, and then find three or four people who are making the same
animal sound!” (Armstrong, 2009:117)
5.2. MI LESSON PLANNING
So far, the importance of the individual differences in the classroom, how the MI
of a person can be tested, and numerous examples to apply to the teaching of English as
a foreign language have been reviewed. But, how should teachers plan a lesson based on
the MI theory? In this section, I present some ideas that might help teachers organize
their lessons and curricula.
As Armstrong claims, there is a big difference between a traditional teacher and
the teacher of a MI classroom:
In the traditional classroom, the teacher lectures while standing at the front of the
classroom, writes on the blackboard, asks students questions about the assigned
reading or handouts, and waits while students finish their written work. In the MI
29 continually shifts her method of presentation from linguistic to spatial to musical
and so on, often combining intelligences in creative ways. (Armstrong, 2009:56)
In order to become a MI teacher and reach all students, we have to be able
not only to use numerous methods and materials but also to have a good
organization. In this way, Armstrong (2009) proposes the following seven-step
lesson and curriculum planning:
1. State clearly and concisely the objective and desired outcome: you have to
think about what core of information has to be learned, its importance, and
the previous knowledge of the students.
2. Ask key MI questions: ask yourself in which way you can incorporate the
different intelligences. Armstrong suggests questions such as: How can I
use visual aids, visualization, colour, art, or metaphor? or How can I involve the whole body or use hands-on experiences? (Armstrong,
2009:65)
3. Consider all the techniques and materials you can employ. We have seen
the importance of diversity in the MI classroom, if we want to reach all
students and obtain better results.
4. Brainstorm: this technique helps you to make a list with all the possible
teaching strategies that can be addressed to each intelligence.
5. Choose those activities that correspond better with what you want to teach,
the learners, setting, duration of the lesson, etc.
6. Design your lesson and/or curriculum plan with all the information you
have.
7. Implement your plan. The original scheme can be changed, if
circumstances so require.
As we can see in appendix 7, Armstrong proposes to explain the same topic in
eight different ways, but his idea does not agree with Gardner’s statement. Gardner
(1999) discards attempting to teach all concepts of subjects using all of the intelligences,
as he considers it a waste of time and energy. Instead, he recommends choosing those
appropriate for each occasion, based on the profiles of the class, the subject, and the age
30
It is of utmost importance to know well the profiles of the students, and the
subject we want to teach. If we do not master the subject, it would be quite difficult to
explain it in various ways (Gardner, 1999, 2013).
6. CONCLUSIONS
Throughout this discussion we have learned that we are different from one
another, those concepts we thought we knew are no longer as we understood them, and
that we have to look beyond a simple psychometric test (IQ test). The theory of multiple
intelligences presents a new concept of intelligence that advocates the diversity of
human beings demonstrating that each of us possesses eight different intelligences and
an endless amount of capabilities that make us unique.
Within the educational framework, this theory has led in a new way of
interpreting education. It confirms that through its use, teachers are able to give each
student the opportunity to learn and achieve academic success, so far reserved only for
those with high performance on linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligences .
The MI theory presents a new way of teaching based on the understanding of
individual differences and encourages teachers to use their creativity by designing
numerous ways of instructing. These diverse forms will help them not only to reach
more students, but also to promote their learning. Thus, not only are the strengths of
students worked on, i.e. those faculties in which they show a greater development, but it
also allows working and improving those in which they manifest weaknesses.
I think the use of the various activities proposed by this theory may result in a
significant improvement in the competence and performance of students of English as a
foreign language, because the exercises encourage learning especially through practice
and experience, and because they are based on the students’ profiles. When the learner
feels identified and comfortable with the method in which a subject is taught their
motivation is increased, which is essential when learning a new language.
Nevertheless, despite all the advantages of this theory, I think it is very difficult to
31
and stimulation of all the intelligences. I think that in regular teaching contexts such as
public high school, where teachers have a significant number of students, it would be
difficult to keep a detailed monitoring of each student, being its implementation more
feasible in small groups. However, I believe it would be a significant progress, and a
great benefit to learners, to carry out some methodological and didactic changes that
may allow the use of different materials, exercises and techniques, in the EFL
classroom.
All in all, we could say that diversity may lead to equality, since paying attention
and addressing to those factors that make us different would enable us to build up an
equalitarian education in which all students have the same chances of acquiring
knowledge.
CONCLUSIONES
A lo largo de este trabajo hemos aprendido que no todos somos iguales, que
conceptos que creíamos conocer ya no son como los entendíamos, que tenemos que
mirar más allá de un simple test de inteligencia. La teoría de las inteligencias múltiples
nos presenta un nuevo concepto de inteligencia que aboga por la diversidad de los seres
humanos, nos muestra que cada uno de nosotros poseemos ocho inteligencias diferentes
y un sinfín de capacidades que nos hacen únicos.
Dentro del marco educativo esta teoría ha supuesto una nueva manera de
interpretar la educación. Nos muestra que a través de su uso, los docentes son capaces
de darle a cada uno de los estudiantes la oportunidad de aprender y de alcanzar el éxito
académico, hasta ahora reservado solo a aquellos con un alto rendimiento en las
inteligencias lingüística y lógico-matemática.
Esta teoría nos presenta una nueva forma de enseñar basada en el entendimiento
de las diferencias individuales y anima a los docentes a hacer uso de su creatividad
diseñando numerosas formas de enseñar. Dichas formas lo ayudarán no solo a llegar a
más alumnos sino que también a propiciar su aprendizaje. De esta manera, no solo se
32
muestran un mayor desarrollo, sino que también permite trabajar y mejorar aquellas en
las que manifiesten flaquezas.
Creo que el uso de las distintas actividades propuestas por esta teoría puede
resultar en una importante mejora del nivel de idioma de los alumnos de inglés como
lengua extranjera, puesto que los ejercicios fomentan el aprendizaje sobre todo por
medio de la práctica y la experiencia, además de que se basan en el perfil de cada
alumno. Cuando el alumno se siente identificado y cómodo con el método en el que se
imparte un tema, su motivación se ve incrementada, lo que es fundamental a la hora de
aprender un idioma.
A pesar de todas las ventajas que ofrece esta teoría, considero que es muy difícil
de implementar en su totalidad, es decir, crear aulas basadas puramente en el desarrollo
y estimulación de todas las inteligencias. Creo que en contextos regulares de enseñanza,
como por ejemplo la escuela secundaria pública, los profesores tienen una cantidad
importante de alumnos, lo que dificulta poder llevar un seguimiento detallado de cada
uno de ellos, siendo más viable su implementación en grupos pequeños. De todas
formas, creo que supondría un avance considerable, y un gran beneficio para los
alumnos, llevar a cabo algunos cambios metodológicos y didácticos que permitan hacer
uso de diferentes materiales, ejercicios y técnicas.
En este caso, podríamos afirmar que en la diversidad está la igualdad, puesto que
prestando atención y dirigiéndonos a aquellos factores que nos hacen diferentes,
seremos capaces de construir una educación igualitaria en la que todos los estudiantes
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