Personal of creativity: factors A second order meta-analysis Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology

w w w . e l s e v i e r . e s / r p t o

Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology

Personal factors of creativity: A second order meta-analysis

Silvia da Costa

, Darío Páez

, Flor Sánchez

, Maite Garaigordobil

, Sonia Gondim

aUniversidaddelPaísVasco,Spain

bUniversidadAutónomadeMadrid,Spain

cUniversidadFederaldeBahia,Brasil

a r t i c l e i n f o

Articlehistory:

Received7May2015 Accepted1June2015

Availableonline26September2015

Keywords:

Creativity Innovation Gender Motivation Creativepersonality

a b s t r a c t

Thisarticleintegratessevenmeta-analysesofindividualfactorsassociatedwithcreativityandinnovation andreportseffectsbasedonone(r)ortwoormore(¯r)meta-analyses.Emotionalintelligence(r=.31), divergentthinking(¯r=.27),opennesstoexperience(¯r =.22),creativepersonality(¯r =.21),intrinsic motivation(¯r =.20),positiveaffect(¯r =.19),andandrogyny(r=.19)arerelatedtocreativity.Age(r=.17), intelligence(¯r=.17),extraversion(¯r =.13),self-efficacy(¯r =.13),andextrinsicmotivation(r=.11)were alsomoderatelyassociatedwithinnovation.Pro-riskattitudes(r=.08)andbeingfemale(r=.07)were weaklyassociatedwithcreativity.Resultsarediscussed,explanatoryprocessesdescribed,andpractical implicationsfororganizationsexamined.

©2015ColegioOficialdePsicólogosdeMadrid.PublishedbyElsevierEspaña,S.L.U.Thisisanopen accessarticleundertheCCBY-NC-NDlicense(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Factorespersonalesypersonalidad:metaanálisisdesegundoorden

Palabrasclave:

Creatividad Innovación Género Motivación Personalidadcreativa

re s um e n

Esteartículointegrasietemeta-análisissobrefactoresindividualesasociadosalacreatividadeinnovación yestimaelefectoenbaseauno(r)ovarios(¯r)deellos.Entrelosrasgosqueseasocianpositivamente alacreatividadseencuentranlainteligenciaemocional(r=.31),elpensamientodivergente(¯r =.27),la aperturaalaexperiencia(¯r=.22),lapersonalidadcreativa(¯r=.21),lamotivaciónintrínseca(¯r=.20),la afectividadpositiva(¯r =.19)ylaandroginia(r=.19).Laedad(r=.17),lainteligencia(¯r =.17),laextraversión (¯r =.13),laauto-eficacia(¯r =.13)ylamotivaciónextrínseca(r=.11)seasociaronconmenorfuerzaala innovación.Unaactitudfavorablealriesgo(r=.08)ysermujer(r=.07)sehanasociadodébilmenteala creatividad.Sediscutenlosresultadosyposiblesprocesosexplicativosylasimplicacionesprácticaspara elámbitoorganizacional.

©2015ColegioOficialdePsicólogosdeMadrid.PublicadoporElsevierEspaña,S.L.U.Esteesun artículoOpenAccessbajolalicenciaCCBY-NC-ND (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Numerousstudiesandinterventionsexistonthetopicofcre- ativity in the domains of education, work,art, science,and in societyingeneral(Artolaetal.,2012;Garaigordobil&Pérez,2004).

Thisthrivingdevelopmentexistssidebysidewithanopendebate onhowtomeasure,apply,anddevelopcreativity(Garaigordobil, 2003).Whileithasbeenshownthatcreativityisabasichumantrait

∗ Correspondingauthor:DepartmentofSocialPsychologyandMethodologyof BehaviouralSciences.AvenidadeTolosa,70,20018.Donostia/SanSebastián,País Vasco.

E-mailaddress:[email protected](S.daCosta).

(Artolaetal.,2012),researchhasallowedustounderstandthat itdoesnotdependexclusivelyonstablecharacteristics(Averill, 2004),but thatitistheresultofindividual,cognitive,affective, behavioral,andcontextualprocesses(Amabile,Barsade,Mueller,

&Staw,2005;Csikszentmihalyi,2011;Sternberg&Lubart,1995).

Creativitymaybeunderstoodasa humanresourcetodealwith thechallengesoflife,supportingpsychologicalandsocialadapta- tion(Artolaetal.,2012;daCosta&Páez,2015).Therelationship betweencreativityandintelligencehasbeenwidelydebated,and whilethereisagreementthatverycreativepeoplearealsointelli- gent,ahighIQitisnotanecessarynorasufficientprecondition for high creativity (Garaigordobil, 2003; Gardner,2010). Those

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rpto.2015.06.002

1576-5962/©2015Colegio Oficialde PsicólogosdeMadrid. Publishedby ElsevierEspaña,S.L.U. Thisis an openaccessarticle underthe CCBY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

studyingcreativityagreethattherearetwoprincipalaspectsthat definecreativity: a)novelty – creativework hastobe original anddifferentinsomewayfrompreviouswork(Amabile,1996;

Feldman,Csikszentmihalyi,&Gardner,1994;Runco,2014), and b)quality–thenewproductmustbedeemedsuitable,evenuse- ful,bya referencegroupwithrespecttoaproblemorsituation (Sternberg&Kaufman,2010).Creativitycanbeanalyzedasaper- sonal attribute,a process, a product, and asthe context which enablesit(Baer,2010).

Inthisstudy,wereviewpersonalfactorsofcreativityandinno- vation.Tothisend,theavailablemeta-analysesonthesubject(see Table1)aresynthesizedandtheimpactoftheresultsisdiscussed intermsoftheworkdomain.Beforethis,wewillreviewtherela- tionshipbetweencreativityandinnovation,giventhatthelatteris theapplicationoftheformerinorganizations.Wewillalsoinvesti- gatethecreativecontextandprocessinordertohighlighttherole ofpersonalfactorsincreativity.

Creativityandinnovation

Bothconcepts share thegeneration of new ideas and prac- tices.Innovationisthesuccessfulimplementationofcreativeideas (Hennessey&Amabile,2010)andinthis senseisunderstoodas a broadprocess which includesthegeneration ofideas orcre- ativitybutalsotheapplicationoftheseinrealenvironments(at work,ineducation,etc.).Creativityisaboutabsolutenovelty,while ininnovationrelative newnessmayincludetheapplicationin a newordifferentwayofproducts,procedures,orprocesseswhich havealreadybeenusedinadifferentplace(Anderson,DeDrew,&

Nijstad,2004).

Socialcontextandcreativity

The context in which creativity is developed is a further factor to take into account in its analysis (Baas, De Dreu, &

Nijstad,2008;Davis,2009;Hammond,Neff,Farr,Schwall,&Zhao, 2011;Hülsheger,Anderson,&Salgado,2009b;Hunter,Bedell,&

Mumford, 2007; Kozbelt, Beghetto, & Runco,2010; Ma, 2009).

Weproposeaninteractionalmodelwhichsuggeststhatinorder toanalyzeinnovationinorganizationsitisnecessarytoconsider differentlevels: individual, group,and organizational (Amabile, 1996;Csikszentmihalyi,2011;Hülshegeretal.,2009b;Sternberg&

Lubart,1995).Anorganizationalcontextrichinresourcesandwith complexandautonomousrolesreinforcescreativity(Costa,Páez, Sánchez,Gondim,&Rodríguez,2014),whileitisintheinteraction withthepersonalfactorsofcreativity(seeTable2)thatinnovation isreinforced.

Creativityasaprocess

Different authors (see for example Amabile, 1996; Basadur, Basadur,&Licina,2012;Csikszentmihalyi,2011;Ma,2009)have proposedmodelsofstagesinthecreativeprocess,suchas:1)prepa- rationstage,withimmersionintheproblemsinherentinatask and/orinsomethingthatarousescuriosity;2)incubationstage, withformulationofproblemsorconceptualizationofhypothesis;

3) generation of solutions or assembling the pieces of a puz- zle(Csikszentmihalyi,2011);4)generationofcriteriatoevaluate appropriatesolutions,involvingcommunication,evaluation,mod- ificationand/orvalidationofideasforthesolutionoftheproblem;

and5)selection,solution,andapplication,involvingdecisionmak- ingorimplementationof theproposedsolution(product,ideas andpractices)orinnovation(Amabile,2013;Basaduretal.,2012;

Hammondetal.,2011).Thislaststagecanbeincludedinaprocess

ofcombiningthecategoriesorreorganizingknowledgedepending onthecomplexityoftheproblem.

Priorknowledgewillbedecisiveinthefirstandsecondstages, withdivergentthinking(DT)playinganimportantroleinstages three andfour,and convergent thinkingbeingessential forthe finalstage(Csikszentmihalyi,2011;Ma,2009;Simonton,2012).

Themeta-analyseshaverevealedthatpersonalitytraitsinfluence thegenerationofideasmorestrongly,whilethecontextsinwhich theyaredevelopedhavegreaterinfluenceontheapplicationstage (Hammondetal.,2011).

Individualcharacteristicsofcreativityfavoringtheprocess andproductofcreativity

SternbergandLubart(1995)proposethatpersonality,intelli- gence,knowledge,thinkingstyle,motivation,andenvironmentare factorsassociatedwithcreativity.Whilethefirstfiveareindivid- ualfactorscorrespondingtothecreativeperson,wealsoneedto considergiven characteristicssuchas ageandgender,acquired characteristicssuchaseducation,andotherindividualattributes suchasattitude,affect,andemotionalintelligence(Garaigordobil, 2003,p.151;seeTable2fordefinitionandexamplesofitems).

Withrespecttogivencharacteristics,likegenderandage,previ- ousreviewssuggestapositiverelationshipbetweenbeingawoman andcreativity.Narrativereviews(Baer&Kaufman,2008)findmany resultswithnodifferencebetweengenders,althoughsomeslightly favorbeingfemaleasopposedtomale.Theresultsofonestudyof genderidentityandcreativityfoundthatsubjectswhowereboth

“feminine”orexpressiveandinstrumentalor“masculine”(androg- ynous)weremorecreativethanpeoplewhoscoredlowonboth dimensions.Highlightingtheimportanceofinstrumentality,the participantswhoreportedstronglyinstrumentalormasculinegen- dercharacteristicsshowedgreatercreativity(Stoltzfus,Nibbelink, Vredenburg,& Thyrum, 2011).In terms of the developmentof creativityrelatedtoage,somestudiessuggestacurvilinearpro- gression,peakingbetween30 and40 yearofageanddeclining after40.Regardingacquiredcharacteristicslikeeducation,ithas beensuggestedthatthelevelofeducationisassociatedwithcre- ativity,althoughitisnotadeterminingfactorbeyondacertainlevel (Artolaetal.,2012).

Withregardtoindividualtraitsassociatedwithcreativity,ithas beenproposedthatfavorablepersonalitytraitsarecreativeself- concept(CSC)orcreativepersonalityandopennesstoexperience (OE).Therelationshipwithcreativityislessclearthanwithother traitssuchasextraversion,agreeableness,neuroticism,andbeing conscientious(seeforexampleFeist,1998;Hülsheger,Anderson,&

Salgado,2009a).Continuingwithcognitiveindividualtraits,intel- ligenceislinkedtocreativityand,sinceitisnotdecisivebeyond acertainlevel,thereisanasymptoticrelationshipbetweenintel- ligenceandcreativity(Kim,2005).Aswellastheroleofgeneral mentalability,someauthorsposittheexistenceofthinkingstyles andattitudesassociatedspecificallywithcreativity,suchasfield independence,toleranceofambiguity,perseveranceinthefaceof frustration,relativedisinterestinsocialapproval,andapro-risk attitude(seeFeist,1998;Hülshegeretal.,2009a).Itisspecifically thoughtthatcreativitycorrelatespositivelywithDTandweakly ornegativelywithconvergentthinking.Theformerallowstasks withmultiplesolutionstobecompleted,andischaracterizedby highideation,intuition,toleranceofambiguity,and lowevalua- tion,whilethelatterisfoundintheareaoflogicaldeduction,and isdefinedbyevaluation,reasoning,adaptation,andintoleranceof ambiguity (Guilford, 1968;Ma, 2009).Afurtherimportant skill istodistancethinkingfromtheproceduresnormallyappliedin dealingwithproblems(forexamplemakingtheunusualnormal andthenormalunusual),orwhenallelsefailstotrysomething

Table1

Personalcreativityandinnovationfactorsbymeta-analysisstatistics.

Study Statisticalsample Factors Mostrelevantresults

Author/year/Publication K Design N Participants

Feist(1998).Personality andSocialPsychology Review

83 Comparative/

descriptive

a)4,852(men vs.women) b)3,918(men vs.women) c)4,397(men vs.women)

a)Scientistsvs.

non-scientists b)Creative peoplevs.less creative scientists c)Artistsvs.

non-artists

Bigfive personality traits

Creativepersonality:opennessto experience,unconventionality, conscientiousness,self-confidence, self-acceptance,impulsiveness,ambitious, dominant,hostilityandimpulsiveness Intra-andinterdisciplinaryvisionrequiredin researchintocreativityasacomplex behavior

Importanceoflongitudinalstudies Baasetal.(2008).

PsychologicalBulletin

102 Experimental and correlational

C1-Positivevs.

neutralaffect= 5,165 C2-Negative vs.neutral affect=4,435 C3-Positivevs.

negativeaffect

=3,559

Studentsand adult population

Positiveand negativeaffect.

Positiveemotionalstates,highactivationand positivecontexts(e.g.ofhappiness),high motivation(vs.low)andrelaxedcontext producemorecreativitythanneutral (emotional,motivational,contextofsadness) andnegativestates(lowmotivation,context offearandanxiety),whichaboveall underminedcognitiveflexibility

Davis(2009).

Organizational BehaviorandHuman DecisionProcesses

72 Experimental and correlational

1)Positivevs.

neutral=2,794 2)Positivevs.

negative= 3,409 3)Neutralvs.

negative= 1,204

Adult populationand somechildren mostlymixed groups,some onlywomen

Positiveand negativeaffect.

Positivestatesofmindimprovecreativity.

Effectstrengthdependsonstateofmind whencomparingandthetypeofcreative taskinvolved

Acurvilinearrelationissuggestedbetween affectintensityandcreativeperformance.

Theinfluenceofcontextisacceptedfor relationsestablishedbetweenstateofmind andcreativity

Hammondetal.

(2011).Psychologyof Aesthetics,Creativity andArts

88 Correlational 7,092 Employeesand

students

Creative personality.

Education, stability (permanent job).

Motivation.

Creative self-efficacy

Individualfactors,workplacecharacteristics andcontextualfactorsaremoderately associatedwithphasesoftheinnovation process

Innovationdefinedasgenerationand applicationofideas

Hülshegeretal.

(2009a)14th Congressofthe EuropeanAssociation ofWorkand Organizational Psychology

97 Correlational Between1,522 and4,164(Big five) Between908 and5,148 (other attributes)

Adult employees

Personality traits.Other personality attributes

OEisassociatedwithinnovation(beingopen tonewideas,curiosity,non-conformism, questioningnorms,andindependent thinking)

Neuroticismcorrelatesnegativelywith innovation(n/s).Extraversioncouldbe importantintheworkdomain.

Agreeablenessisnotshowntoberelevant.

Beingconscientioushasanambivalentlink withinnovation

Relationsbetweencreativityandothertraits likecreativeself-concept,proactive personality,propensitytoinnovateand internallocusofcontrolorself-efficacyare strongandgeneralizabletoothersamples.

Therearefewprimarystudiesofpersonality andinnovationinworkororganizational domains

Kim(2005).TheJournal ofSecondaryGifted Education

21 Correlational 45,880 Children,

militarycadets anduniversity students (adults)

IQlevelsabove andbelowthe threshold Socio- demographic variables:

gender,age

RelationsbetweencreativitytestsandIQ scoresarelow(IQtestscontributeinsecond place)

Agecontributesstronglytotherelation betweenintelligenceandcreativity.This studydoesnotsupportthethresholdtheory

Ma(2009).Creativity ResearchJournal

111 Correlational Notregistered Studentsand teachers

Personality, motivation, thinking, attitude

r for¯ problemsolvingandverbalcreativity weresignificantlyhigherthanthosefor emotionalcreativityandnon-verbal creativity.Variablewithhighest ¯r were:

recognition=rewards,workenvironment favorabletocreativity,problemdefinition andaccessingknowledgeinsolvingthem Conceptualknowledgeofaspecificdomain maybeapre-requisiteforcreativeproblem solving

Note:k=numberofstudies;N=numberofparticipants=a,b,cparticipatinggroups;C1,C2,C3comparisonsmade;1,2,3participatinggroups; ¯r=meanr.

Table2

Personalfactorsofcreativity(adaptedfromMa,2009)anditemswhichrelatetothemonthescaleofInnovationFactorsinOrganization(F.I.N.O)(daCosta,Páez,Oriol,&

Unzueta,2014).

Givenorascribed variables

Sex F.I.N.O.scaleitems

Gender Age Acquiredsubject

variablesor individual attributes

Educationyacademic achievment

Includesgrades,amongothers Markwhatappliestoyourspecificsituation... 22.-IbelieveIamcompetentatteamwork(my knowledge,techniques,personalskillsequip meforit)

A.Creativepersonality Includestestscoresmeasuring,e.g.,creative personality,interests,attitudeandself-perception B.Opennesstoexperience

C.Neuroticismoremotional stability

D.Extraversion

E.Agreeableness

F.Conscientiousness

Suchasopposedtobeingsatisfiedwiththeknownand familiar,inconformitywithimposeddiscipline Includeslowhostility,depression,self-conscience, impulsiveness,vulnerabilityandanxiety

Includeshighscoresofopenness(beingsociallyopen) andlowintroversion,searchingforsocialsupportto dealwithstressfulsituations

Includesbeingcompassionate,kind-hearted, cooperativeasopposedtohostile(proud,skepticaland competitive)

Dealingwithsituationswithoutusinghostile confrontation

Includesbeinganorganized,disciplinedand goal-orientedperson

Cognitiveabilities IncludesIQtestscores

Attitude Pro-risktendency 19.-Workplacecharacteristicsinthis

organizationmeanthatpeople:

c.-Takeonchallengesintherealizationoftheir work

d.-Decidehowtodotheirwork Tendencytodivergentthinking Includespreferenceforhighideation;lowevaluation;

highintuition;lowreasoning;highinnovation;low adaptation;moreexplorationthanassimilation;high toleranceforambiguity

19.-Workplacecharacteristicsinthis organizationmeanthatpeople:

a.-Comeupwithandconsideralternative possiblesolutionstoaproblematwork b.-Knowthattheyhavetoapplyoriginal solutionstocarryouttheirjobefficiently Tendencytoconvergent

thinking

Includespreferenceforevaluation,reasoningand adaptation,lowtoleranceandambiguity Motivation

Intrinsic

andextrinsic

18.-Peoplewhoworkinthisorganizationare motivatedby:

a.-Theworkitselfthattheydo

b.-Thepleasuretheyderivefromajobwell done

c.-Theirsalary

d.-Thesecurityofhavingajob e.-Thepossibilityofpromotioninthe organization

Self-efficacy Includeshavingconfidenceinone’sownabilities;

self-esteem;self-determination;internallocusof control

16.-Peoplewhoworkinthisorganization:

a.-Believeintheirabilitytodothejob efficiently

b.-Believeintheirabilitytocarryouttheir workbyapplyingoriginalsolutions c.-Believetheycangeneratenewideasin connectionwiththeirwork

d.-Believetheyareabletoapplynewproducts orprocessesintheirjob

Affectivesensitivity Includeslowalexithymiaandhighempathy 17.-Peoplewhoworkinthisorganization:

a.-Expresstheiremotions

b.-Talktotheircolleaguesabouttheir emotions

c.-Aresensitivetothefeelingsandemotionsof theircolleaguesandputthemselvesintheir situation/respondinasuitablewaytotheir colleagues’emotionalreactions

Positivevs.neutraland negativeaffect,inducedor personaltrait

21.-Theatmosphereamongemployeesofthis organizationischaracterizedby:

c.-Apositiveworkatmosphere

(good-humoured,enthusiastic,understanding ...)

Inducedaffectivetraitandstate

counter-intuitive(Amabile,1996;Baasetal.,2008;Davis,2009;

Ma,2009).Nevertheless,someauthorssubmitthatthereareno cognitivestylesgenerictocreativityandthatthesearespecificto theareainquestion(Hennessey&Amabile,2010).

Inadditiontointelligence,personalitytraits,attitudes,andcog- nitive styles,motivation is a furtherindividual factor which is importantincreativity.Ithasbeenclaimedthatthereisapositive relationbetweencreativity,intrinsicmotivation,andself-efficacy (Artola etal.,2012;Guilford,1968;Runco,2014).Itisexpected thatpeoplearemorelikelytobecreativewhentheyareintrin- sicallymotivated,i.e.,byinterest,pleasure,satisfaction,andthe challengeofthetaskitself,morethanbyexternal pressureand reward(Amabile,1996).Self-efficacyreferstotheperceptionthat onehasthecapacitytobehaveinawayrequiredtoattainagoal andthebeliefsaboutone’spersonalcompetencestobeproactivein thegenerationofnewideasandtheapplicationofinnovations.Itis expectedthathighself-efficacyisassociatedwithgreatercreativ- ity(Hülsheger,Anderson&Salgado,2009a;Ma,2009).Therelation betweenextrinsicmotivationandcreativityisnotclear,although someauthorssuggestanegativelink(Ma,2009).

Finally,emotionsandaffectivityareindividualfactorsrelevant tocreativity.Intermsoftherelationbetweenaffectivityandcre- ativity,itisthoughtthatemotionscanchangethinkingandthat knowingthemcanhelponeusethemtoprocessinformationina betterway,thusallowingemotionalintelligencetofurthercreativ- ity(Mayer&Salovey,2007).Severalauthorsproposethatpositive affectfacilitatescreativity(Amabileetal.,2005;Fredrickson,2009;

Isen,Daubman,&Nowicki,1987).Thereisalsoevidencetosug- gestalinkbetweennegativeaffectandpsychopatholgy,giventhe factthatthepercentageofdisordersishighamongsomecreative groupssuchasartists,althoughthisassociationhasalsobeenques- tioned(Feist,1998;Ivcevic,Brackett,&Mayer,2007;Ma,2009).

Onthebasis ofourreview,thehypothesisisputforwardin thisstudythatcreativityisassociatedwiththefemalegenderand androgyny,inacurvilinearformbyage,andasymptoticallywith intelligenceandeducation;withopennesstoexperience,creative self-conceptandtoalesserdegreewithotherpersonalitytraits;

with cognitive/attitudinal variables (DT and pro-risk), intrinsic motivationandself-efficacy,lowextrinsicmotivation,emotional intelligence(EI),and positiveaffect.It isalsoexpectedthatthe associationwithnegativeaffectisweakerorlessclear.Finally,we expectthattherewillbeastrongerassociationbetweencreativity andmotivationthanbetweencreativity,cognition,andattitude.

Wenowturntoanexplanationofthemethodusedtoexplore thehypothesis,theresultsobtainedandthediscussionofobjec- tives. The limitations of the study willalso be outlined before conclusionsforfutureresearcharedrawn.

Method

Asearchwasmadeforallarticleswhichincludedtheterms meta-analysis,stateoftheart,review,creativity,andinnovation (PsycINFO&GoogleScholar),withoutsearchingexhaustivelyfor primaryarticlesandwithoutimposingtimelimits.Meta-analyses which used creativity or innovationas a criterion variable and individualcharacteristicsasa predictivevariablewereincluded (highlightedwithanasteriskinthereferences).Alsoincludedwere meta-analyseswhich had as anaxiscreativity and itsrelation- shipwithgivenandacquiredindividualcharacteristics,personality traits,attitude,intelligence,andcognitivestyles,motivationalpro- cesses,affectivity,andemotionalprocesses(seeTable1).

Table 3 displays individual factors of creativity which are presentintwoormoremeta-analyses.Theireffectsaredescribed byprovidingzandkforeach.Toprovidetheeffectsofallthefac-

tors,correlationsrwererun.WhentherewereCohen’sds (e.g., Table3 Meta-analyticsresultsofpersonalcreativityfactors. Meta-analysisFeist(1998)creativevs. less-creativescientists andartistsvs.non- artistsfivefactormodel

Davis (2009)Baasetal. (2008)Ma (2009)Hülsheger etal.(2009a)Kim (2005)Hammond etal.(2011) Variablezkzkzkzkzkzkzkzk¯r¯rwBESDeffectsize% highcreativityin favourablefactor vs.%highcreativity inlowfactor Creativepersonality.2038.2410.249.22.2160.5%vs.39.5% Opennesstoexperience.2028.2129.3424.1913.199.22.2261%vs.51% Extraversion.1728.07529.1524.1013.12.1256%vs.44% EmotionalInstability-Neuroticism.05528.02529-.1328-.1014-.04-.0351.5%vs.48.5% Agreeableness-.0128-.1029.0813-.049-.03-.0552.5%vs.47.5% Conscientiousness.0928-.2929.1119-.00115-.02-.0653%vs.47% Intelligence(IQ).0410.1821.11.1758.5%vs.41.5% Divergentthinking.208.3115.25.2763.5%vs.46.5% Intrinsicmotivation.1533.2416.20.2060%vs.40% Self-efficacy.1146.226.17.1356%vs.43,5% Positivevs.neutralaffect.2548.1563.20.1958.5%vs.41.5% Note:BESDbasedonweightedr;z=equivalenttozofr;¯r=runcorrectedmean;¯rw=rmeanweightedbyN.

Ma,2009,Davis,2009),theywereconvertedintors.Whenthere wasonlyonemeta-analysis,thereffectsizeisreported,andwhen thereweretwoormore,amean ¯reffectsizeisshown.Wecalcu- lated ¯ronthebasisofthersnotcorrectedforreliabilitytogroup theresultstogether,giventhatitwasthecommonindicatorforall.

N,orsamplesize,wasusedtoweighttheeffects.GiventhatMa’s meta-analysisonlyreportedk,orthenumberofstudies,andnotN onwhichthesewerebased,thesamplesizewasestimatedonthe basisoftheaverageNinotherstudies.Giventhelargevaluesof N,allconfidenceintervalsexclude0,e.g.,withN=15,279the95%

confidenceintervalofemotionalinstabilitywasbetween-.05and -.01(DeCoster&Iselin,2005).

Toshowtherelevanceoffactorsfacilitatingcreativity,Rosen- thal’sBinomialEffectSizeDisplay(BESD)wasused.Assumingthe variablecreativityorinnovationisnormallydistributed,ahighlevel (aboveaverage)ofthefacilitatingfactorimpliesaprobabilityof.50 +r/2greatercreativity(e.g.,theassociationofneuroticismwithcre- ativityisr=-.03).Thismeansthat51.5%(.50+.03/2=.515)ofpeople withemotionalstabilitywilldisplayamorecreativethanaverage response,comparedto48,5%ofpeoplewithhighneuroticism.

Results

Thehypotheseswillbeexaminedinorderofeffectsize(greater tosmaller),takingintoaccountwhetherwearedealingwithan integrationoftwo or moremeta-analysesor commentary ona singleone.Inthefirstcase,theestimatedweighted ¯r isgiven.

Theresultsofthemeta-analysesreviewedclearly show(see Table3)that morecreativepeoplearecharacterizedbygreater DT(¯r=.27).This(r=.20)isassociatedwithcreativity,asiscon- vergentthinking(r=.10)inthemeta-analysisofMa(2009).The meta-analysisofHülshegeretal.(2009a)foundthatDTisasso- ciated(r=.30)withinnovationandthatpeoplewithasystematic thinkingstyledisplayedlowerworkplaceinnovation(r=-.26).Hav- ingtheknowledgerelevanttothetaskisassociatedwithinnovation (r=.33)inthesamemeta-analysis.DTisthemostimportanteffect ofthosereviewedbasedonmorethanonemeta-analysisandits BESDcanbeseeninTable3.

Resultsindicatethatcreativityis associatedwithpersonality traitssuchasCSC, ¯r =.21,OE, ¯r =.22,andtoalesserextentwith beingextrovert(¯r =.11).OEisalsoassociatedwithcreativity(r=.33, Ma,2009),andinnovationatwork(r=.19Hammondetal.,2011;

Hülshegeretal.,2009a).CSCisalsoassociatedwithcreativityin (r=.20,Ma,2009)and workplaceinnovation(r=.24Hammond etal.,2011).Creativityisalsoassociatedwithgreaterextraversion (r=.12)andinsomemeta-analyseslikeMa’s(2009)withemotional stability(r=.13),withconscientiousness(r=.11)and agreeable- ness(r=.08),althoughinotherscreativityisnegativelyrelatedto conscientiousnessandagreeableness(seeFeist,1998;Hülsheger etal.,2009a).Lowneuroticism(¯r=−.03)andagreeableness(¯r=

−.05)andbeinglessconscientious(¯r =−.06)aregloballyassoci- atedwithcreativity.TheeffectsofCSCandOEaresecondandthird inorderofimportanceofthosereviewedonthebasisoftwoor moremeta-analyses(seeBESDinTable3).

Creativityisassociatedwithlowalexithymiaandhighempathy, consideredtobeindicatorsof EI(Ma,2009,r=.31).Twometa- analysesfoundthat positive affect isassociated with creativity (¯r =.19)(Baasetal.,2008,r=.15;Davis,2009,r=.25).However, thiseffectwasgreaterinexperimentalratherthancorrelational studies,andthetypeoftaskandthecontextinfluencedtheeffect (seeinTable1 Baasetal.,2008;Davis, 2009).Comparingposi- tivewithnegativeaffectgroups,itwasfoundthatpositiveaffect reinforcesoriginalityandfluidityofcreativeresponse(r=.11and r=.09),althoughitdoesnotinfluenceflexibilityoraglobalindicator ofcreativity(Baasetal.,2008).Finally,thesesameauthorssuggest

thathighactivationreinforcescreativity,whileDavis(2009)offers evidencethatifpositiveaffectistoohighitinhibitsit.Thisisthe fifthmostimportanteffectofthosereviewedin morethanone meta-analysis(seeBESDinTable3).

Intrinsicmotivationisassociatedwithcreativity, ¯r=.20(Ma, 2009,r=.15;Hammondetal.,2011,r=.24).Thislastmeta-analysis foundapositive associationbetweenrewardsandpressures,or extrinsicmotivation,andcreativity(r=.11).Theresultsshowthat therelationbetweencreativityandintrinsicmotivationisgreater thanwithextrinsicmotivation,althoughitispositiveinbothcases.

Theeffectonintrinsicmotivationisthefourthmostimportantof thosereviewedbasedonmorethanonemeta-analysis(seeBESD inTable3).Androgynousgenderidentity,orpossessingexpressive alongsideinstrumentalcharacteristicsisassociatedwithcreativity (Ma,2009,r=.19)

Regardingage,alinearrelationwasrevealedbetweenthisand creativity(Ma,2009,r=.17).Intelligencewasassociatedwithcre- ativity(¯r=.17).Kim(2005)foundthattherelationbetweenIQand creativityislinear(r=.17),whileHülshegeretal.(2009a)discov- eredacorrelationbetweengeneralmentalabilityandinnovation ofr=.04.

Intermsofself-efficacyandcreativity,itwasfoundthatthese motivationindicatorswereassociatedwithcreativity ¯r=.13.The first is linked to performance in workplace innovation, r=.22 for workplace self-efficacy and r=.28 for creative self-efficacy (Hülshegeretal.,2009a).ThisassociationwasalsofoundinMa’s (2009)meta-analysis(r=.11).InthatofHülshegeretal.(2009a),the associationswithself-efficacywerestrongerthanthatshownby creativitywiththeOE(r=.19)andCSC(r=.20),signalingthatmoti- vationwouldbeabetterfacilitatorforinnovationthanpersonality.

Conversely,inthemeta-analysisofMa(2009),self-efficacywas associatedlessstronglywithcreativity(r=.11)thanwasCSCand OE,whichwerelinkedmoreintensely(r=.30&r=.35respectively).

Ma’s(2009) meta-analysis confirms a significant association betweenanattitudefavorabletotakingrisksandcreativity(r=.08).

Afurthersignificantrelationwasfoundbetweenbeingfemaleand creativity(r=.07,Ma,2009).Thelevelofacademicachievement wasnotsignificantlyassociatedwithinnovation(Hammondetal., 2011,r=.14).Themeta-analysesofBaasetal.(2008)andDavis (2009)revealedthatnegativeaffectivityhadanon-significantrela- tionwithcreativity.

Discussion

Theanalyses carried outprovide evidence aboutthefactors which reinforce creativity and innovation. Sixty percentof the effectsfoundweresmallerthan.19,which,despitebeinga low correlation,arecoherentwiththosefoundinsocial psychology, where50%ofthesameeffectsarebelowthisvalue(Richard,Bond,

&Stokes-Zoota,2003).The ¯r betweenindividualvariablesandcre- ativitywas.14,belowtheaverageinsocialpsychologywhichis .21.Individualfactorsreviewedexplain2%ofthevarianceincre- ativity,whilevarianceexplainedbyrole,group,andorganizational factorswas7.2%,with ¯r at.27,higherthanthatexplainedbyindi- vidualvariables (daCosta, Páez,Sánchez,Gondim,&Rodriguez, 2014).Thisreinforcestheimportanceofamodelofperson-context interactiontounderstandcreativity.

Resultsconfirmmostofthehypotheses,withtheexceptionof thenegativeassociationbetweenconvergentthinkingandextrin- sicmotivationwithcreativity,ofthecurvilinearorasymptotical relationwithage,intelligence,andeducation,andthehypothesis ofastrongerassociationbetweencreativityandmotivationthan betweencreativity,cognition,andattitude.Thesenegativefindings areimportant,becausetheydisconfirmsomeassumptionsshared

inthedomainofcreativityandinnovationbyrelevantauthors(e.g., Amabile,1996).

Results show that low alexithymia and high empathy are strongly linked to creativity, confirming that knowing and usingemotionsisfunctional, bothfor thinkingand information processing(Mayer&Salovey,2007).Toexplainthis,wecansuppose thatEIreinforcesthefunctionaluseofemotionsinthinkingand problemsolving.Intermsofcognition,DTisalsostronglylinked tocreativityanditshigherscoresareassociatedwithworkplace innovation,justashavingknowledgerelevanttothetaskisasso- ciatedwithinnovation(Hülshegeretal.,2009a;Ma,2009).This maybeexplainedbypositingthatthethinkingstylemoststrongly associatedwithcreativityisthinkingthatdiverges,disagrees,and looksforalternativesororiginalpossibilitiesforsolvingagiven problem(Ma,2009).Inonemeta-analysis,convergentthinkingis associatedwithcreativity,butinanother,systematicthinkingwas negativelylinkedtoinnovation.Thisdiscrepancycouldbedueto howboththedependentandindependentvariablesaremeasured (Hülshegeretal.,2009a;Ma,2009).Inthecreativeprocess,both stylesofthinkingarenecessary,withtheroleofconvergentthink- ingvarying,dependingonwhetherthefocusisonthegenerationof ideasortheirapplication.Themodelofperson-contextinteraction isimportantforunderstandingthisrole(Csikszentmihalyi,2011;

Hammondetal.,2011;Ma,2009;Simonton,2012)

ThestrongassociationbetweenCSC,OE,andcreativityisdueto peoplepossessingthesetraitstoahighdegreebeingmoreflexible andbeingstronglyattractedtonewperspectivesandfeelings(Feist, 1998;Hülshegeretal.,2009a;Ma,2009),totheextentthatthey wouldbemorelikelytotrychangesandinnovate.Ithasalsobeen suggestedthatthisassociationcouldbeduetotheoverlapbetween descriptorsofOE,CSC,andself-reportsofcreativity.However,the linkbetweenCSC,OE,andcreativityandinnovationisfoundwhen indicators of achievementand external judgesare used, which questionswhetherthisonlyarisesbecauseoftheoverlapofmethod andsemanticcontent.Themoderatelystrongassociationbetween extraversionandcreativitycanbeexplainedbythefactthatpeo- plewiththischaractertraitaremoreenergetic,morelikelytolook fornewstimuli(newwaysofdoingtasksandsolvingproblems), resultingingreatercreativeachievement.Beingfriendly,consci- entious,andemotionallyunstableslightlyhinderscreativity(Feist, 1998;Hülshegeretal.,2009a;Ma,2009).

Therelationbetweenmotivationandcreativity(Ma,2009)was confirmedbothinstudiesofcreativity,andcreativityappliedto organizations(Hülshegeretal.,2009a).Inordertoexplaintheeffect ofintrinsicmotivation,itissuggestedthatthisreferstoanatural tendencytowardscontrol,interest,anddiscovery,representingan importantsourceofpleasureandvitality(Hammondetal.,2011).

Creativeperformanceinvolveshighlevelsofenergy,concentration, andwillpower,whichmeansthathavinghighlevelsofintrinsic,and toalesserextentextrinsicmotivation,willdrivethecreativeeffort.

Afurthermotivationalfactor,self-efficacy,isassociatedwithcre- ativity,albeittoalowerdegreethanintrinsicmotivation.General andcreativeself-efficacyactasmotivationalforcestoraisecreative performanceviatheperceptionthatone possessesthecapacity necessarytoattaingoals.Questioningthehypothesisofthegeneral superiorityofmotivation,however,ithastobesaidthatitseffect islessthanthatofDTandsimilartothatofsomepersonalitytraits.

Regardingtherelationshipoftheseindividualfactorsinthediffer- entstagesofthecreativeprocess,werecallthatHammondetal.

(2011)foundthatpersonalityandmotivationwereassociatedwith thegenerationofideas,whilethecharacteristicsofworkandthe organizationdosomorestronglywiththeirimplementationinthe workplace.

Themeta-analysesconfirmthat,comparedtoaneutralstate, positiveaffectreinforcescreativitywithaneffectsizesimilarto intrinsic motivation(Baaset al.,2008; Davis, 2009).To explain

this,it issuggestedthatpositive affectreinforcescreativitypri- marilyviamemoryandthought.Positiveaffectwouldengendera greaterflowornumberofideasbecausetheassociativenetwork ofemotionalstatesandpositivematerialspromotesmemoryand accessibilityofinformation.Itwouldfacilitateamoreflexibletreat- mentofcategoriesbecausepeoplewithapositivestateofmind aremoreinclusivewhencategorizingstimuli.Furthermore,pos- itive affectwould reinforce thegenerationof more uncommon ideas,i.e., originality (Baas et al.,2008; Davis, 2009).Secondly, withpositive feelings acting asa signalsuggesting that a state ofwellbeing prevails,theyevokea playful,relaxedapproach to tasks (e.g. DT), whereas negative feelings would indicate dan- ger,therebyprovokingsystematicthoughtinproblemsolving.A positiveoutlookwouldreinforceDT,boostattentionandthereper- toireofactionsandideas(Fredrickson,2009).Finally,positiveaffect andassociatedemotionswillinfluencecreativitythroughtheten- dencytowardsactionthattheyprime.Positiveemotionsofhigh levelsofactivation,suchashappinessandinterest,whichinvolve action tendenciesof anactive approach,motivate creativeper- formance(Baasetal.,2008).Mereexperiencingofsuchstatesof positivevalencedoesnotreinforcecreativity(daCosta,Páez,Oriol,

&Unzueta,2014);itisthehighlevelofactivationwhichreinforces itwhenitispositiveandblocksitwhenitisnegative.Furthermore, acongruencyhypothesisispartiallyconfirmed:positiveaffectrein- forcescreativityintaskswhichareenjoyableandareintrinsically motivating,whileunderminingitinserioustasksofextrinsicrein- forcement(Baasetal.,2008).

Beingolder isassociated withcreativity,demonstrating that experienceprovidesresourcesforitandthatitisfarfrombeing typicalofyoungpeople.Ratherthanacurvilinearrelationbetween thetwo,alinearonewasfound(Ma,2009).Ithasbeensuggested that intelligence measured by IQ is associated with creativity, althoughitisnotdecisivebeyondacertainlevel;thisisknownasan asymptoticrelationship.Empirically,intermsofcognitivecapac- ityandcreativity,itwasfoundthattherelationbetweenIQand creativityislinear(Kim,2005).Theseresultssuggestthatgreater intelligencemeansgreatercreativity,butpermitalargeamountof variabilityinthelatter(seeKim,2005inTable1),i.e.,onecanbecre- ativewithoutbeingveryintelligent,butthegreaterone’scognitive resources,ingeneralthegreaterone’screativity.

Confirming that creativity hastodo withattitude (Amabile, 1996;Hennessey&Amabile,2010),Ma’smeta-analysis(Ma,2009) supportsa slightassociationbetweenpro-riskattitudeand cre- ativity.Takingrisksintryingoutideasand newprocessesisan importantpartofthecreativeprocess.Fromthegenderperspec- tive,womendisplayedslightlymorecreativity(Ma,2009).Interms ofgenderidentity,itwasfoundthathavingexpressivetraitsalong- sideinstrumentalones,i.e.,androgyny,isassociatedwithcreativity morestronglythanbeingmaleorfemale,whichsuggeststhatthe psychologicalismorerelevantthatthebiologicalsex(Ma,2009;

Stoltzfusetal.,2011).Thatistosaythatinternalizationofinstru- mental (e.g.,beingassertive) and expressive attributesin one’s self-conceptmayaidinnovation.

Regardingtherelationbetweeneducationandcreativity,itwas seenthatacademicachievement,aneducationlevelindicator,was notassociatedsignificantlywithinnovation.However,thisconclu- sionisdiminishedbytheideathatrelevantknowledgeforthetask inhanddoesassociatewithit(Hülshegeretal.,2009a),anditis understoodthattobeanexpertinagivenfieldrequirestenyears ofsystematiclearning(Csikszentmihalyi,2011;Gardner,2010).

Negative affect is in general not associated with creativity (Davis,2009).Comparedtoitspositivecounterpart,negativeaffect slightlyreducestheflowandoriginalityofthecreativeresponse, althoughitdoesnotaffectotherfacetsofcreativity(Baasetal., 2008).Somestudieshavediscoveredpositive relationsbetween indicators ofpsychopathologicalimbalance andcreativity, asin

thecase ofartists,but notinscientists (Feist,1998; Ma,2009).

Nevertheless,therelationbetweenaffectivedisordersandcreativ- ityisessentiallyfoundintheexperienceofintenselyaffectiveor moderatelymanicstateswhichheightenconsciousnessandflexi- bilityofthought(Ivcevicetal.,2007).

Regarding limitations of the study, we acknowledge in our conclusionsthattheyarebased oncorrelationsuncorrected for measurementerror,andarethuslikelytobeunderestimatesof therealrelations;forexamplethesizeeffectforpositiveaffectwas largerthanr=.20whencorrectedforreliabilityofmeasurement (Davis,2009).Furthermore,wedonottakeintoaccounttheover- lapbetweenthestudiesofmeta-analyses,althoughwebelievethat sincetheyderivefromtraditionsofexperimentalpsychologyonthe onehandandorganizationalpsychologyontheother,anyoverlap willbeminimal.Inaddition,insomecasesthereisonlyonemeta- analysis,whichlimitsgeneralization.Inthisregard,wenotethat resultshavebeenunifiedfortasksofcognitivecreativitywitheval- uationsoftheapplicationofideasandproductsinorganizations, althoughthisalsoreinforcesthegeneralityoftheconclusions.

Conclusions

The results confirm that creativity is associated with emo- tionalintelligence(e.g.,highempathy,emotionalexpressiveness, andgoodcapacitiesofaffectregulation),divergentthinking,cre- ativepersonality,opennesstoexperience,positiveaffect,intrinsic motivation,andandrogyny.Toalesserdegreeitisassociatedwith age,intelligence,extrinsicmotivation,self-efficacy,andsomewhat lesswithpro-riskattitudeandthefemalesex.Onthebasisofthe evidence,wecanconcludethatwhenrecruitingstaffwithcreativity inmind,theseshouldbeemotionallyintelligent,haveahighdegree ofdivergentthinking,bemotivatedprimarilyfortheinterestand challengeinvolvedinthework,andbesimultaneouslyexpressive andassertive.Asapracticalconclusion,weemphasizethatforinno- vationintheworkplaceemotionalaspectssuchasEIandcognitive facetslikeDTaremoreimportantthanmotivationalfactorssuch asself-efficacyandintrinsicmotivation.Anorganizationalculture thatbooststheEIofitsworkforceincreasesemployees’capacityfor understanding,using,expressing,andregulatingemotions,while alsoreinforcinginstrumentalandcognitivecapacitieswillpromote innovationconsiderably.

Inrecruitmentitshouldalsoberememberedthatemployees withopenness to experience traits and a creative self-concept couldstrengthenorganizationalinnovation.Furthermore,anorga- nizational culture which includes in its occupational roles the goalsofgeneratingideasandapplyingoriginalideasinproblem solving, as well as a commitment to innovative behavior and practices may help to turn this into the norm, and, through organizationalsocialization,itmaybecomeinternalizedintheself- concept.Toalesserextent,selectingemployeeswithhighpositive affectwouldbenefitinnovation.Fromanorganizationalpointof view,practicesandnormswhichreinforceapositiveclimateand positive emotionsamong thestaff couldhave thesame effect.

Inbothemotionalclimateand positiveemotionsoftheindivid- ual,itshouldbespecificallyemotionsofhighactivationthatare boosted,notthose ofcalm,sinceonlytheformerfavor innova- tion.Recruiting peoplewithhighintrinsic motivation andhigh self-efficacy,orreinforcingtheseinexistingemployeesbyraising theirdecision-makingandautonomousworkplanningcapacities, aswellasincreasingtheirself-controlandcognitivecompetences, willpromoteinnovationmoderately.Prioritizingtheselectionof womenabovemen,olderpeopleandthosewithapro-riskdis- positionwould(moderately)benefitinnovation.Finally,itshould berememberedthatorganizationalfactors(e.g.,complexityand autonomyintheworkrole,andstructuralresourcesofthecom-

pany)aremoreimportantthanthoseofpersonalityintermsof increasingcreativityandorganizationalinnovation.Withregardto futureresearch,webelieveitnecessarytousemoresophisticated statisticalmethodstoverifytheoreticalmodelsusingmoderation andmediationanalyses.Wealsoconsideritimportanttobroaden sociallyandculturally thesamplesofthestudies,incorporating workersfordifferentorganizationalareas.

Conflictofinterest

Theauthorsofthisarticleherebydeclarenoconflictofinterest.

Financialsupport

Thisstudyhasbeenmadepossible thankstoresearchgrant PSI2011-26315andtoUFI11/04ofUPV/EHU.

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