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GIBBS-EINSTEIN:

¿FIN DEL DEBATE?

Luis Navarro Veguillas

(luis.navarro@ub.edu)

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• Millikan: “Gibbs lives because, profound

scholar, matchless analyst that he was, he did for statistical mechanics and for thermodynamics what Laplace did for celestial mechanics and Maxwell did for electrodynamics, namely, made his field a well-nigh finished theoretical

structure”.

• Planck (cita que encabeza la biografía “oficial” de Gibbs): “… whose name not only in America

but in the whole world will ever be reckoned among the most renowned theoretical

physicists of all time …”

• Sociedad científica británica (años 1920’s): “¿Veinte hombres de ciencia más grandes

desde el Renacimiento?” 1.- Newton 2.- Darwin

3 y 4.- Einstein y Faraday 5.- Gibbs (aparecía en casi todas las papeletas).

• Einstein, 1954 (un año antes de su muerte):

“¿Pensador más potente que había conocido?”

“Lorentz”. “Nunca me encontré con Willard Gibbs; posiblemente, si esto hubiera sucedido, lo habría tenido que colocar junto a Lorentz”.

• 1901: Se otorga a J. W. Gibbs la Copley Medal by the Royal Society of London. (La más alta distinción para un científico hasta la creación del Premio Nobel; Röntgen recibió el primero – rayos X– en 1901).

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JOSSIAH WILLARD GIBBS

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• 1839.- Nace en New Haven, Connecticut. • 1863.- Tesis doctoral “On the form of the

teeth of wheels in spur gearing”; en Yale. (Primer Ph. D. en ingeniería en EEUU). • 1866-1869.- Amplía estudios en Europa.

(Paris, Berlin y Heidelberg. Con Liouville, Kirchhoff, Bunsen, Helmholtz, ...).

• 1871.- Comienza su carrera docente en Yale. Profesor sin sueldo hasta 1880.

• 1876, 1878.- Publicación, en dos partes, de “On the equilibrium of heterogeneous

substances”. Pronta y amplia difusión internacional.

• 1879-1889.- Publicaciones en óptica y

electromagnetismo. Gran reconocimiento. • 1891-1893.- Trabajos sobre cuaterniones (en

Nature) y álgebra vectorial.

• 1901.- Concesión de la Copley Medal de la

Royal Society of London. Aparece Vector analysis, founded upon the lectures of J. Willard Gibbs (por E. B. Wilson).

• 1902.- Publicación de Elementary principles

in statistical mechanics.

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ALGUNAS CARACTERÍSTICAS DE LA VIDA

Y LA OBRA DE J. W. GIBBS

• DE SUS INVESTIGACIONES:

Escasez de: -relaciones personales

-discusiones e intercambios -publicaciones

• DE SU ACTIVIDAD DOCENTE (32 años):

-Menos de 100 alumnos (muy pocos de ellos interesados en estudios avanzados y casi ninguno en la investigación).

-Figura como director de 5 tesis doctorales (consta poco seguimiento: orientación, crítica y presentación).

-Sin escuela, ni continuadores directos; su influencia fue “a distancia”; no “por

contacto”.

• DE SU PRESTIGIO (ACADÉMICO):

-Le vino, esencialmente, a través de las aplicaciones de su formulación de la

termodinámica (en particular a través de las de su “regla de las fases”).

-Concretamente: tras el establecimiento de la

physical chemistry como profesión (revistas,

sociedades, congresos, etc.);

paulatinamente desde los años ochenta. -Tampoco se debe olvidar a sus valedores

(Maxwell, que murió en noviembre de 1879) y traductores europeos (W. Ostwald, y H. Le Chatelier; después también E. Zermelo).

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EJEMPLO DE LAS ANOTACIONES DE GIBBS, DE LOS ENVÍOS DE SUS PUBLICACIONES

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EL PROBLEMA DE LOS CALORES ESPECÍFICOS • 1857-58 Clausius. Si v p C C = γ (coef. adiabático):

β

=

cte

E

trasl

total

β γ 3 2 1+ =

E

• 1860-.. Maxwell: ⇒

3

3

+

=

n

β

3

2

1

+

+

=

n

γ

( n: nº de grados de libertad internos).

• Datos de la época (1860’s; gases diatómicos): 4 1. ≅ γ ¡¡¡Sorpresa!!!

·

con 3 5 1 0 ⇒ = ⇒ = = β γ n ¡demasiado alto!

·

con 3 4 2 3 ⇒ = ⇒ = = β γ n ¡demasiado bajo!

• Además, las cosas amenazaban ir a peor:

los últimos datos espectroscópicos −y otros− parecían anticipar moléculas de mayor

complejidad; es decir, de mayor n⇒ menor γ.

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ƒ “SUGERENCIA” de la naturaleza: n = 2 (¿?).

·

Maxwell: esperar.

·

Boltzmann: las situaciones experimentales

reales ¿eran de verdadero equilibrio?

Llegó a pensar en la molécula “rotor rígido”.

·

Para todos: un grave problema.

__________________________________________ ƒ COMPLEMENTOS:

·

Kund y Warburg (1875): Primeras medidas

para gases monoatómicos (con vapor de

mercurio). Resultado: γ compatible con

3 5 .

·

Helio, argón y criptón: descubrimiento y

mediciones en las décadas siguientes.

ƒ POR ELLO, EL PROBLEMA DE LOS CALORES ESPECÍFICOS HACIA FINALES DE SIGLO SE REFERÍA A LOS GASES DIATÓMICOS:

• W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin): “Nineteenth century clouds over the dynamical theory of heat and light”. (Famosísima conferencia en la Royal

Institution; abril, 1900).

·

First cloud: “Relative motion of aether and

ponderable matter”.

·

Second cloud: “Maxwell-Boltzmann

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EINSTEIN: EN LA LÍNEA DE BOLTZMANN • 1902 [sobre objetivos]:

Great as the achievements of the kinetic theory

(…) the science of mechanics has not yet been

able to produce an adequate foundation for the general theory of heat, for one has not yet

succeeded in deriving the laws of thermal equilibrium and the second law of

thermodynamics using only the equations of mechanics and the probability calculus, though Maxwell’s and Boltzmann’s theories came

close to this goal. The purpose of the following considerations is to close this gap (…).

• 1903 [sobre una hipótesis adicional]:

The distribution of states (…) will continually

change with time, and we will have to assume that always more probable distributions of states will follow upon improbable ones.

• 1904 [sobre resultados]:

First, I derive an expression for the entropy of a

system (…). Then I give a simple derivation of the second law. After that I examine the

meaning of a universal constant which plays an important role in the general molecular

theory of heat. I conclude with an application of the theory to black-body radiation.

A DESTACAR: EN 1904 EINSTEIN SE DIRIGE HACIA LA TEORÍA DE LA RADIACIÓN PARA APLICAR SUS MÉTODOS ESTADÍSTICOS.

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GIBBS (1902): UNA NUEVA CONCEPCIÓN ƒ 1902 [prólogo de Elementary principles ...] :

•The laws of thermodynamics, as empirically

determined, express the approximate and probable behaviour of systems of a great number of particles, or, more precisely, they express the laws of mechanics for such

systems as they appeared to beings who have not the fineness of perception to enable them to appreciate quantities of the order of

magnitude of those which relate to single particles.

•The laws of statistical mechanics apply to

conservative systems of any number of

degrees of freedom, and are exact. This does not make them more difficult to establish than the approximate laws for systems of a great many degrees of freedom, or for limited

classes of such systems. The reverse is rather the case (…).

•The laws of thermodynamics may be easily

obtained from the principles of statistical mechanics, of which they are the incomplete expression, (…) the rational foundations of thermodynamics lay in a branch of mechanics of which the fundamental notions and

principles, and the characteristic operations,

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ƒ 1902 [Ibidem]:

Moreover, we avoid the gravest difficulties when giving up the attempt to frame

hypotheses concerning the constitution of material bodies, we pursue statistical inquires as a branch of rational mechanics (…) Even if we confine our attention to the phenomena

distinctively thermodynamic, we do not escape difficulties in as simple a matter as the number of degrees of freedom of a diatomic gas. It is well known that while theory would assign six degrees of freedom per molecule, in our

experiments on specific heat we cannot account for more than five. Certainly one is building on an insecure foundation, who rests his work on hypotheses concerning the

constitution of matter.

Difficulties of this kind have deterred the author from attempting to explain the

mysteries of nature, and have forced him to be contented with the more modest aim of

deducing some of the more obvious

propositions relating to the statistical branch of mechanics. Here, there can be no mistake in regard to the agreement of the hypotheses with the facts of nature, for nothing is assumed in that respect. The only error into which one can fall, is the want of agreement between the

premises and the conclusions, and this, with care, one may hope, in the main, to avoid.

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ƒ Un ejemplo:

¿Cómo introduce Gibbs la distribución

canónica? (“La más probable”, para Einstein).

• Es la primera distribución que analiza porque “… seems to represent the most simple case conceivable …” θ ε ϕ−

= e

P

[P, coefficient of probability, cuyo logaritmo se denomina index of probability, y juega un papel

esencial en el formalismo;

ε

representa la

energía;

ϕ

,

es una cte.; y

θ

es el modulus −una

característica− de la distribución].

• ¿Por qué es simple? Exponente lineal en la energía, derivable, normalizable, etc.

• Al operar con dicha distribución, se obtienen unas relaciones entre promedios que

coinciden con resultados de la termodinámica (del equilibrio). Tras proceder a la

correspondiente identificación −

θ

con la

temperatura absoluta, <

ε

> con la energía

interna, < - log P > con la entropía, etc.

GIBBS ha logrado su objetivo: encontrar las

thermodynamic analogies −penúltimo capítulo

de su libro−.

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ESQUEMA COMPARATIVO DE LOS MÉTODOS DE GIBBS Y DE EINSTEIN

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ƒ ¿PUEDE CONSIDERARSE QUE EN 1902 QUEDARON RESUELTOS TODOS LOS PROBLEMAS, AL REEMPLAZARSE EL ORIGINAL ENFOQUE REALISTA DE LA TEORÍA CINÉTICA (Clausius, Maxwell, Boltzmann, Einstein) POR EL MODERNO ENFOQUE OPERACIONALISTA (Gibbs, ...)? ƒ LA CONTESTACIÓN DEPENDE EN BUENA

MEDIDA DE LA CONCEPCIÓN QUE CADA UNO TENGA ACERCA DE LA PROPIA CIENCIA.

ƒ A TENER EN CUENTA: EL IMPACTO DEL

LIBRO DE GIBBS FUE AMPLIO E INMEDIATO: • St. Louis Congress (1904):

Grandes elogios de, Barus, Poincaré y Boltzmann, entre otros.

• Primer Congreso Solvay (1911):

Se cita elogiosamente y se emplea el “método de Gibbs”; Lorentz y Planck, entre otros.

ƒ UN EJEMPLO DEL TONO ELOGIOSO INICIAL: • EINSTEIN 1911 [en una polémica −no

deseada− con P. Hertz]:

I only wish to add that the road taken by Gibbs

in his book [1902, traducido al alemán en 1905], which consists in one’s starting directly from the canonical ensemble, is in my opinion

preferable to the road I took. Had I been

familiar with Gibbs’ book at that time, I would not have published those papers [1902, 1903 y

1904] at all, but would have limited myself to

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ƒ UNA OPINIÓN QUE, EN BUENA MEDIDA, REPRESENTA LA OPINIÓN MAYORITARIA: • R. C. TOLMAN (1938):

Throughout the book [Elementary …, 1902] although the work of earlier investigators will not be neglected, the deeper point of view and the more powerful method of Gibbs will be taken as ultimately providing the most

satisfactory foundation for the development of a modern statistical mechanics.

………..

In concluding this chapter on the H-theorem it is evident that we must now regard the original discovery of this theorem by Boltzmann as

supplemented in a fundamental and important manner by the deeper and more powerful

methods of Gibbs.

__________________________________________

ƒ RESULTA ENORMEMENTE FÁCIL ENCONTRAR OPINIONES QUE SE AJUSTAN AL PUNTO DE VISTA ANTERIOR.

ƒ PERO TAMBIÉN EXISTEN OPINIONES QUE EXPRESAN PUNTOS DE VISTA

RADICALMENTE DIFERENTES.

ƒ VEAMOS ALGUNOS EJEMPLOS, TAMBIÉN REPRESENTATIVOS:

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• M. BORN (1949):

Einstein’s approach to the subject [statistical

mechanics] seems to me slightly less abstract

than that of Gibbs. This is also confirmed by the fact that Gibbs made no striking application of his new method, while Einstein at once

proceeded to apply his theorems to a case of utmost importance, namely to systems of a size suited for demonstrating the reality of molecules and the correctness of the kinetic theory of matter.

• L. ROSENFELD (1955):

To appreciate the superiority of Boltzmann’s

[or Einstein’s] philosophical standpoint, it is

instructive to contrast it with the timid and

ambiguous attitude of Gibbs. While Boltzmann remained undaunted, Gibbs retreated before the difficulties. He endeavoured to make use only of those parts of the formal structure of statistical mechanics which were susceptible to a fully rigorous treatment with the methods then available. This means that he shunned the whole problem of ergodic hypothesis, in spite of its fundamental importance, and that with regard to the physical interpretation he took refuge to the crudest Platonistic conception of mechanical “analogies” of the

thermodynamical laws. If one takes this view, the real physical basis of the theory, and

specially the essential character of uniqueness of the atomistic interpretation, is utterly lost. In fact, the paradoxical outcome of such an

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idealistic treatment is an atomic theory of heat from which the concept of atom is wellnigh banished. The exquisite formal elegance of Gibbs’ treatise should not blind us to the fundamental inadequacy of the underlying philosophy.

__________________________________________

ƒ ASÍ, NO POCOS OPINAN QUE EL DEBATE NO SE HA CERRADO:

• EL PROBLEMA NO SE HA RESUELTO; SINO QUE LA NUEVA MECÁNICA ESTADÍSTICA LO HA AMAGADO.

• SIGUE SIN EXPLICARSE ADECUADAMENTE −EN OPINIÓN DE LOS “DESCONTENTOS”− LA IRREVERSIBILIDAD MACROSCÓPICA, A

PARTIR DE LAS COLISIONES ENTRE MOLÉCULAS.

• INCLUSO ALGUNOS PROBLEMAS

AVANZADOS DE LA FUNDAMENTACIÓN DE LA MECÁNICA ESTADÍSTICA ACTUAL SON −AUNQUE PLANTEADOS EN FORMAS

DIFERENTES− PROBLEMAS QUE

APARECIERON EN EL SIGLO PASADO (p. ej. la introducción de la probabilidad, la ergodicidad, la equivalencia entre promedios, etc.).

__________________________________________ ƒ CONCLUSIÓN: LA CONTESTACIÓN A LA

PREGUNTA INICIAL PASA POR UNA OPCIÓN PERSONAL, QUE INCORPORARÁ CON

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ƒ EN ESTA LÍNEA, DOS EJEMPLOS ILUSTRATIVOS.

• Respecto a la opción personal:

LEBOWITZ (“Boltzmann’s entropy and time’s arrow”, Physics Today, September, 1993): Subtítulo: Given that microscopic physical

laws are reversible, why do all macroscopic events have a preferred time direction?

Boltzmann’s thoughts on this question have withstood the test of time.

• Respecto a la incorporación de ideología: EINSTEIN (Autobiographical notes, 1949):

This is an interesting example [Mach y

Ostwald] of the fact that even scholars of

audacious spirit and fine instinct can be obstructed in the interpretation of facts by

philosophical prejudices. The prejudice which has by no means died out in the meantime

consists in the faith that facts by themselves can and should yield scientific knowledge without free conceptual construction. Such a misconception is possible only because one does not easily become aware of the free choice of this concepts, which, through verification and long usage, appear to be immediately connected with the empirical material.

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MÁS INFORMACIÓN

• GIBBS, J. W. (1902): Elementary principles in

statistical mechanics. Yale University Press.

[Reimpresión de Ox Bow Press (1981) en BFQ]. • BUMSTEAD, D. H. & VAN NAME, R. G. (eds.)

(1906): The scientific papers of J. Willard Gibbs (2 vols.) Longmans, Green and Co., New York. [Reimpresión (1961) en BFQ].

• WHEELER, L. P. (1915): Josiah Willard Gibbs.

The history of a great mind. Yale University

Press, New Haven. (Biografía “oficial”) [Reedición revisada (1962) en BFQ].

• GILLISPIE, Ch. C. (ed.) (1981): Dictionary of

Scientific Biography. New York, Charles

Scribner’s Sons. (14 vols.).

[La colección −y dos suplementos (1981 y

1990) − en BFQ. El volumen 5, pp. 386-393, contiene una corta pero muy aceptable biografía de Gibbs, debida a M. J. Klein].

• NAVARRO, L. (1998): “ Gibbs, Einstein and the foundations of statistical mechanics”. Archive

for History of Exact Sciences, 53, pp. 147-18.

---

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