Revista Argentina de Clínica Psicológica 2020, Vol. XXIX, N°2, 1394-1402
DOI: 10.24205/03276716.2020.381 1394
REGULATION AND COPING STRATEGIES OF COACHES' WORK STRESS
AND PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH
Long Liu
Abstract
The physical and mental health of coaches is critical to the healthy development of the sports industry. However, many coaches are working under intense mental stress, calling for effective coping measures. This paper mainly evaluates the current situation of work stress and physical and mental health of college coaches, identifies the correlation between the two factors, and put forward relevant coping strategies. A questionnaire survey was carried out among college coaches of three ball sports, namely, basketball, football and volleyball, and the data were subjected to descriptive, correlation and hierarchical regression analyses on SPSS 17.0. The results show that college coaches have not done enough exercises to maintain physical health, face a medium level of work stress, and maintain a high level of satisfaction with their jobs; professional title has no obvious impact on work stress or physical and mental health; college coaches aged 36 to 45 have relatively poor physical and mental health; the negative impact of work stress on physical and mental health is more prominent among football and volleyball coaches than among basketball coaches; the work stress of college coaches should be coped with from both individual and organizational perspectives. The research results shed new light on how to maintain the occupational health of coaches.
Key words: College Coaches, Work Stress, Physical and Mental Health, Coping Strategies. Received: 18-05-19 | Accepted: 12-08-19
INTRODUCTION
Work stress has become a factor affecting the health of professionals. The economic losses of companies, enterprises and even the whole society caused by excessive stress can not be underestimated. The United Kingdom, the United States and other countries have begun to carry out regular monitoring and evaluation of the level of workers' work stress. Researchers in mainland China and Hong Kong have also conducted many stress surveys on various industries in the past 20 years (Poms, Fleming, & Jacobsen, 2016; Ito & Matsushima, 2017; Cosh & Tully, 2015). The generally accepted ways to relieve stress are mainly to participate in sports and adopt other coping strategies. When a
Physical Education College of Anyang Normal University, Anyang 455000, China.
E-Mail: [email protected]
person feels stress stimulation physically or mentally, it produces cortisol, which raises blood pressure and blood sugar levels, thereby improving the body's ability to respond to stress instantaneously, such as fleeing dangerous targets quickly (Kerri, Carol, Stone et al., 2015; Sarani, Azhari, & Mazlom, 2015). The secretion of catecholamine under stress also stimulates sympathetic response to stress. However, if the human body is stimulated by long-term or greater stress, but there is no proper physical exercise, then the accumulation of secreted stress hormones in the body will have serious
negative effects, including diabetes,
atherosclerosis and so on (Kohli, Sane, Ghate, 2016). In addition, when participating in sports, the human body secretes neurochemical substances such as dopamine and endorphin, which can help improve people's mood. Some sports, such as yoga and stretching exercises, are especially effective in relieving stress-induced
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muscle tension. Some team projects require the participation of many individuals, which is helpful in seeking social support under pressure. Adherence to sports can help improve people's subjective well-being, or the effectiveness of stress coping. In theory, taking part in a proper amount of sports can help to alleviate the pressure, thereby alleviating the negative effects caused by excessive pressure.
Participation in sports and appropriate coping strategies can reduce stress levels, which can lead to other positive reactions, such as increased job satisfaction, and lower stress levels are also associated with better physical and mental health (De Fazio, Cerminara, Calabró, et al., 2016; Dindo & Lackner, 2017). Especially physical and mental health has been paid more and more attention in recent years. Dr. Adams and others divide physical and mental health into six dimensions: physical, intellectual, social, psychological, spiritual and emotional health: physical health is close to people's general understanding, referring to the good state of the body and the ability to adapt to the environment. Intellectual health refers to the inherent motivation and ability to learn; social health refers to the ability to get support from family, friends, colleagues, etc., on the contrary, oneself can also become a good supporter of others (Gilbert, Lyon, & Wahl, 2015). Mental health refers to a positive understanding of the living environment and events; spiritual health is related to belief, which means having correct values of life; emotional health refers to having a positive concern for oneself and a sense of self-identity.
With the development of society and the intensification of competition, the professional pressure of college coaches in our country is increasing day by day. College sports coaches have dual professional identity. They play the role of training "all-round health" talents in the future society, and their quality and professional attitude directly affect the development of athletes' psychological and physiological quality, and also affect their concept of lifelong sports, and even affect the development of a series of follow-up fitness work. The present situation of job burnout of three major ball coaches in a university was visited and investigated in order
to find out some relevant laws and
characteristics in order to serve the society, schools and sports education administrative agencies. Especially for the three major college
ball coaches to understand and understand the problem of job burnout to provide a theoretical basis for the management and construction of the three major college ball coaches to provide a scientific reference.
STUDY ON OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH
Concepts of occupational stress and stress
Occupational stress refers to a state of tension in which a series of psychological, physiological and behavioral changes are caused by the persistence of threatening stimuli in the occupational environment. Stress refers to those events or environmental stimuli that make people nervous, and it is an internal psychological state that makes people nervous. When the stress is excessive or persistent for too long, individuals in high stress state are easily exhausted physically and mentally, resulting in disease and accelerating life aging. The famous GAS model was put forward by Selye. The three stages of occupational stress are alarm, impedance and exhaustion, all of which have destructive effects on human body (Hayward, Knight, & Mellalieu 2017). Lazarus believes that: firstly, individuals should evaluate whether external events are challenging or threatening, and then evaluate the coping resources they can get. Occupational stress arises only when individuals think that the latter is insufficient to cope with external threats. Wang Chongming divides occupational stress into four dimensions: task stress, competitive stress, interpersonal stress and environmental stress. On the basis of the above empirical research, the author makes the following three supplements:
Firstly, there are many mediating variables in the dynamic process from stress source to stress, and individual subjective evaluation always plays a decisive role. Because the external stimulus can only exist as a potential source of stress, that is, external factors; only when an individual evaluates this potential source of stress as a stress event, can it become a real source of stress, that is, external factors play a role through internal factors. In fact, there are a large number of phenomena of the same cause and different fruit or different cause of the same fruit (Longshore, & Sachs, 2015).
Secondly, the positive or negative effects of pressure mainly depend on the intensity of pressure. In all kinds of activities, motivation
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changes with task difficulty. Easier tasks will promote the enhancement of individual motivation, and their work efficiency will gradually improve; moderate task difficulty will easily lead to the best work efficiency; however, with the increasing task difficulty, the motivation level will appear parabolic decline, the pressure intensity will rise sharply, and the negative effect will become more and more serious.
Thirdly, occupational stress can also increase two dimensions: social and family stress and self-development stress. Professionals are first and foremost a social person. The number and intensity of various pressures and stimuli from society and family are often greater than those of the previous four dimensions. In addition, self-need, self-expression, self-expectation and self-development are mixed with ideals, fantasies and dreams, which are often the greatest motivation or pressure of a person.
Figure 1
.
Stress coping model
From the above supplements, we derive the principles of coping with occupational stress: stress mechanism has a positive guiding significance for deriving coping principles; stress is a response to stressors; coping styles can start with the prevention, reduction and elimination of stressors. Stress can produce a series of physical, mental and behavioral changes. Coping styles should focus on alleviating and improving the body's physical and mental symptoms, which can be used as a test of effectiveness. Individual subjective evaluation plays a decisive role in the formation of stress, and coping style should focus on strengthening individual psychological defense and resistance. Whether the role of stress is positive or negative depends mainly on the intensity of stress. Coping styles should make
suggestions on setting stress intensity
scientifically for units and individuals. The stress response model is shown in Figure 1. Occupational stress has many dimensions, and coping styles should seek relief strategies from social, unit and individual aspects.
Psychological stress and negative effects of occupational stress
The initial signs of occupational stress are mental distress, memory decline, negative attitude towards oneself and the surrounding
environment, and emotional irritability,
irritability, anxiety, nervousness, apathy,
anxiety, etc. Behavioral manifestations include insomnia, excessive tobacco and alcohol,
procrastination, late absence, eating or
anorexia, etc (Saxon, Makhashvili, Chikovani et al., 2017). Physiological manifestations include palpitation and headache, cold palms or sweating, digestive system problems, and reduced immunity. If the above symptoms are not taken measures, it will easily lead to psychological and physiological exhaustion, and lead to job burnout. The main characteristics of job burnout are the retreat and irresponsibility of the clients.
Figure 2
.
Dual channel model of pressure
regulation
The negative impact of occupational stress is very harmful to the unit. The American Occupational Stress Association estimates that the annual expenditure on stress-related anxiety, accidents and employee turnover, unpunctual attendance, huge medical costs, and compensation for work-related stress litigation has exceeded $300 billion. According to the data of the British Federation of Industry, as early as the 1990s, occupational stress has been 10 times the loss of labor disputes, and occupational
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stress has become the most important factor leading to the loss of working days. China's research on the negative effects of occupational stress is fragmentary. For example, nearly 70% of the 50,000 managers surveyed by Fortune magazine in 2015 found that they felt more or more stressed.
The reason why stress affects our physical and mental health is related to the response of neuro-immune-endocrine system. When we feel stress, the body produces cortisol and other hormones, as well as neurotransmitters such as adrenaline and norepinephrine. As a highly developed species, our physiological response to stress has been shaped by the environment. In the past, when people were faced with life-threatening situations, such as animal attacks, the body needed to solve the emergency immediately. To do this, the energy in the human body will help people fight, escape, or have a blank brain in front of danger in various ways, which is what we call combat, escape or stubborn reaction. The two-channel model of pressure regulation is shown in Figure 2. Generally speaking, we regulate our stress and mood by cognitive regulation and long-distance coping mode. In emergency, we will start automatic short-circuit coping mode. In the absence of stress, signals from the prefrontal cortex are transmitted to the deep brain, such as the hypothalamus, which controls basic desires such as daily habits, appetite and sexual desire, and the amygdala, which regulates mood. A moderate amount of norepinephrine and dopamine can bind to some receptors, which can strengthen the connection with the prefrontal cortex. Under stress, the amygdala, which controls mood, can lead to excessive production of norepinephrine and dopamine under stress.
RESEARCH METHOD
Subjects of investigation
College coaches were the subjects of the survey. The study adopted a convenient sampling method. A total of 600 questionnaires were sent out and 343 were successfully recovered, with a recovery rate of 57%.
Questionnaire
The questionnaire consisted of three scales:
Godin Leisure Sports Questionnaire,
Occupational Stress Scale and Cognitive Scale of Physical and Mental Health.
(1) Godin Leisure Sports Questionnaire The questionnaire consists of two questions. The first question is how many times a week the respondents participated in different intensities of exercise, divided into high intensity, moderate intensity and light exercise, and each exercise time is not less than 15 minutes. In order to help the respondents distinguish the intensity of sports, besides describing, the corresponding sports events are given as examples. For example, high-intensity sports are described as "very fast heartbeat", such as fast running, vigorous swimming, football, squash, basketball and so on. According to the information provided by the respondents, a leisure sports index can be calculated according to the following formula:
Weekly sports = 9 * high intensity exercise times + 5 * moderate intensity exercise times + 3 * light exercise times.
The second question uses a simpler way of asking whether the respondents often take part in physical activities that make them sweat and heart beat faster in their free time every week. The respondents can choose between frequent, sometimes, rarely or never. The research used the index of weekly sports based on the first question in data analysis.
The questionnaire is simple and practical, and has been applied to the study of various adult groups with high reliability and validity. The reliability of the test and retest was 0.74, and the results reported by the questionnaire were significantly correlated with the maximum oxygen consumption (r = 0.24) and body fat rate (r = 0.13).
(2) Occupational stress scale-2
Occupational Stress Scale-2 is composed of a series of scales which can be used separately. It is mainly designed to test managers' job stress. It has been applied in many studies at home and abroad. The study used its coping scale (10 questions), work stress scale (40 questions) and
job satisfaction scale (12 questions).
Questionnaires were all based on Likert's 6-point scale, with 1 indicating "little experience" or "little use", and 6 indicating "frequent experience" or "frequent use". Coping strategies can be further divided into control strategies (trying to control and solve problems) and support strategies (seeking other people's support in actual work and emotions). Work stress includes eight factors: work burden, work relationship, balancing family and work,
WORK STRESS AND PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH OF COLLEGE COACHES 1398
management responsibility, personal
responsibility, daily trifles, professional identity and organizational climate. Job satisfaction can be divided into two dimensions: job satisfaction and organizational satisfaction.
(3) Psychosomatic Health Cognitive Scale The scale consists of 36 questions. Likert's 6-point scale is also used. 1 expresses "strong opposition" and 6 expresses "strong approval". The scale divides physical and mental health into six dimensions: physical, intellectual, social, psychological, spiritual and emotional health. The scale has been adopted by Western and Taiwanese scholars and applied to different adult groups, showing good reliability and validity.
Data analysis
SPSS17.0 was used for data analysis. The main analysis methods include descriptive analysis, correlation analysis and hierarchical regression analysis.
RESEARCH RESULTS
Survey of respondents
After 345 questionnaires were collected and entered into SPSS documents, the remaining 343 cases were analyzed, including 145 males (42.2%) and 198 females (57.8%). Most of the respondents were under 45 years old (90.3%). 173 of them were between 25 and 34 years old, and 67 were under 25 years old. 67.7% of the respondents were unmarried, 29% were married and a few were divorced. Most managers were
educated at or above the junior college level, 65.5% of them had undergraduate or junior college degree, 15.3% had master's degree, and 65 managers only graduated from middle school. About one-third of the respondents (116) have just stepped into management positions for two years or less, while nearly one-fourth of the respondents (82) are experienced managers who have worked in management positions for more than 10 years. 52.6% of the managers interviewed came from non-governmental sports organizations, nearly a quarter from the government sports authorities, namely the Leisure and Cultural Services Department, and
nearly a quarter from profit-making
organizations, as shown in Table 1.
Reliability of questionnaires
The results of the scale analysis show that the reliability of the scales used in the study is very high. The clonal Bach alpha coefficient of the work stress, job satisfaction and mental and physical health cognitive scale is more than 0.90, and the alpha coefficient of the coping strategies scale is also 0.80, as shown in Table 2. All of them accord with Nunnall's suggestion that the clonal Bach alpha coefficient of the scale should be better than 0.70. Only a few subscales have reliability coefficients ranging from 0.60 to 0.70. As shown in Table 2, the average value of the participants participating in sports is 19.33. The statistical analysis shows that the lowest value of the index is 0 and the highest value is 104. According to the new sports guidelines issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Table 1. Population statistics of research subjects
Content Number Percentage
Less than 25 years old 67 19.60%
25-34 years old 173 50.80%
35-44 years old 67 19.60%
45-54 years old 30 8.80%
55 years and over 4 1.20%
Male 145 42.20%
Female 198 57.80%
Unmarried 230 67.70%
Married 99 29%
Divorce 11 3.30%
Master's degree and above 52 15.30%
College-based and College-based 224 65.50%
Secondary School Education 65 19.10%
Less than two years 116 34%
2-5 years 99 29%
6-10 years 44 13%
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Resources Services in 2008, adults who want to maintain good health should take part in at least 2.5 hours of moderate intensity exercise or 75 minutes of high intensity exercise every week. If converted into Godin's sports index, the index should be 35. In the study, only 15.1% (51 people) of coaches met this minimum standard. It can be seen that, on the whole, coaches are seriously short of sports, failing to achieve the amount of sports needed to maintain physical health.
The average work stress reported by the respondents in this paper is 3.63. As far as Likert's 6-point scale is concerned, this mean means that the level of work stress they are facing is in the middle. The pressure level of coaches is lower than that of other groups surveyed with the same scale. Some studies have found that the average pressure of managers in Taiwan's industrial and commercial sectors is 3.98, while that of managers in Hong Kong is 3.83, while that of managers in state-owned industrial and manufacturing industries in
mainland China is slightly lower, at 3.41. According to the average level of each stress factor, coaches' work pressure often comes from personal responsibility, lack of professional identity, working climate and overburdened work, while management responsibility does not pose too much pressure on them. 4.30 coping mean indicates that physical education coaches often adopt some coping strategies to alleviate work pressure. The frequency of control and support strategies they adopt is comparable.
The average job satisfaction of sports coaches is 3.79, which is higher than that of managers in Hong Kong's business sector (average = 3.56). Sports coaches' satisfaction with the work itself (mean = 3.91) is much higher than that of the organization they work in (mean = 3.67). Their evaluation of their physical and mental health level is also higher (mean = 4.05), indicating that the physical and mental health of coaches is generally better, in all dimensions, social, spiritual and physical health is slightly better than the other three dimensions.
Table 2.
Descriptive statistical data of scales and sub-scales
Factor Mean value Standard deviation Coefficient
Working pressure 3.74 0.67 0.96
Individual responsibility 3.98 0.81 0.76
Career Identity 3.93 0.98 0.88
Organizational climate 3.92 0.78 0.75
Overburdened work 3.91 0.91 0.85
Work Concern 3.74 0.84 0.91
Daily trifles 3.51 0.71 0.63
Balancing Family and Work 3.54 0.84 0.84
Management responsibility 3.23 0.82 0.71
Job satisfaction 3.82 0.65 0.93
On the job itself 3.78 0.71 0.89
Organizational structure 3.68 0.7 0.88
Cognition of physical and mental health 4.16 0.49 0.93
Social health 4.24 0.57 0.71
Spiritual health 4.21 0.66 0.77
Good health 4.12 0.65 0.77
Mental health 3.95 0.58 0.67
Intellectual health 3.94 0.54 0.62
Emotional health 3.91 0.63 0.8
Coping strategies 4.41 0.53 0.81
Support response 4.43 0.68 0.67
Control response 4.39 0.64 0.83
Athletic sports 19.44 16.67
Table 3.
Different teaching age
Teaching age Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Low sense of achievement Average value
Less than 5 years 2.259 2.453 2.797 2.493
5-10 years 2.295 2.557 2.841 2.561
11-15 years 2.439 2.675 2.898 2.674
16-20 years 2.595 2.612 2.894 2.693
More than 20 years 2.291 2.334 2.776 2.467
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Dimensional differences of coaches' work stress and physical and mental healt
Coaches whose teaching time is from 2011 to 2020 have a higher correlation between their work stress and their physical and mental health, whether in terms of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization or low sense of achievement, than coaches of other teaching ages, as shown in Table 3 and Figure 3.
Figure 3
.
Dimensional analysis of different
teaching ages
Less than 5 years 5-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years
More than 20 years
2.25 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.45 2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85 2.90
Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Low sense of achievement Average value
There is no significant difference between the three major college ball coaches with different professional titles in the correlation between work stress and physical and mental health, nor in the three dimensions, as shown in Table 4 and Figure 4.
Coaches aged 36 to 45 have a higher impact on their physical and mental health than coaches of other ages. There was no significant difference in three dimensions of burnout, as shown in Table 5 and Figure 5.
Figure 4
.
Dimensional analysis of different
title types
Senior Intermediate Primary
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Low sense of achievement Average value
Figure 5
.
Dimensional analysis of different
ages
Under 30 31-35 years old 36-40 years old 41-45 years old 46 years old 2.10
2.15 2.20 2.25 2.30 2.35 2.40 2.45 2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80
Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Low sense of achievement Average value
Table 4.
Different types of titles
Types of titles Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Low sense of achievement Average value
Senior 2.578 2.593 2.953 2.689
Intermediate 2.426 2.658 2.936 2.673
Primary 2.397 2.694 2.976 2.659
F 1.645 0.393 0.236
Table 5.
Differences of coaches of different ages in three dimensions
Age Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Low sense of achievement Average value
Under 30 2.147 2.341 2.685 2.391
31-35 years old 2.293 2.445 2.638 2.458
36-40 years old 2.483 2.563 2.796 2.614
41-45 years old 2.327 2.542 2.792 2.553
46 years old 2.181 2.212 2.664 2.355
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Table 6.
Three dimensions of coaches of different categories
Coach type Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Low sense of achievement Average value
Football 2.326 2.522 2.747 2.532
Basketball 2.361 2.451 2.925 2.589
Volleyball 2.335 2.517 2.643 2.498
T 0.1787 0.0292 6.2879 1.23
In view of the three major categories of college ball coaches, the work stress of football and volleyball coaches has a greater impact on physical and mental health than that of basketball coaches, and it is also consistent with the overall burnout in terms of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. The average number of basketball coaches is higher than that of football and volleyball coaches in terms of low
sense of achievement (P < 0.05), as shown in
Table 6 and Figure 6.
Figure 6
.
Dimension analysis of different
categories
Footba ll Basketba
ll Volleyball
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Low sense of achievement Average value
CONCLUSION
Physical education teaching should
implement the guiding ideology of "people-oriented, health first". Through physical education teaching, students' physical health should be enhanced, and more attention should be paid to the cultivation of students' mental health. Coaches shoulder dual tasks. Every sports worker has the responsibility and obligation to help students become a healthy person. In order to make physical education an effective way to promote college students' mental health, the suggestions are as follows. Coaches should fully recognize the importance of mental health education and implement it in teaching. As the leader of teaching, they should not only master skilled professional knowledge,
but also learn and train related mental health knowledge, so as to truly grasp the psychological characteristics of students and teach students in accordance with their aptitude. Combining the advantages of extracurricular activities, we can fully expand the mental health education of College students. Extracurricular activities are relatively flexible in content and autonomous in activity, which is very consistent with the physiological and psychological needs of coaches. This is also one of the effective ways to cultivate students' psychological health effects. Relevant leaders should attach great importance to the significance of psychological health education of sports coaches, provide a powerful platform for the implementation of mental health education, carry out sports cultural activities to promote the healthy development of physical and mental health of coaches, and create a harmonious sports cultural atmosphere.
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