Brief emotional eating scale: a multinational study of factor structure, validity, and invariance

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Table 1. Fit indices for a two-factor (pleasant, unpleasant) model of emotions experienced at the time of highest cravings for the national samples

Model χ² df CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR

United Kingdom (n = 330)¹ 71.775 24 .939 .909 .084 .056

North America (n = 366)¹ 80.532 24 .945 .918 .086 .054

Philippines (n = 348) 68.395 26 .963 .949 .072 .052

Finland (n = 415) 73.328 26 .959 .943 .070 .048

Spain (n = 244) 43.399 26 .973 .963 .054 .048

Italy (n = 264) 57.168 26 .967 .954 .071 .049

South Korea (n = 218)¹ 68.847 24 .942 .914 .096 .072

China (n = 300)¹ 77.514 23 .949 .920 .092 .060

Note: χ² = Chi-square; df = Degrees of freedom; CFI = Comparative fit index; TLI = Tucker Lewis fit index; RMSEA = Root mean square error of approximation; SRMR = Standardised root mean square of residuals. ¹ = residual errors correlated

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Table 2. Latent factor correlations between emotional eating scale states and emotions experienced at the time of strong food cravings

Emotions experienced at the time of

food craving Brief Emotional Eating factors

Pleasant emotions

Unpleasant emotions

United Pleasant high activation .410^§ .040

Kingdom Pleasant low activation .427^§ -.028

Unpleasant high activation -.136 .551^§

Unpleasant low activation -.109 .420^§

North Pleasant high activation .358^* .117

America Pleasant low activation .337^* .146

Unpleasant high activation .160 .360^*

Unpleasant low activation -.059^* .308^*

Philippines Pleasant high activation .458^§ .032

Pleasant low activation .285^* .119

Finland Pleasant high activation .524^§ -.085

Pleasant low activation .581^§ -.128

Unpleasant high activation .107 .357^*

Unpleasant low activation -.158 .635^†

Spain Pleasant high activation .456^§ .058

Pleasant low activation .402^§ .139

Unpleasant high activation -.074 .392^*

Unpleasant low activation -.103 .387^*

Italy Pleasant high activation .470^§ -.083

Pleasant low activation .534^§ -.051

Unpleasant high activation .021^* .605^†

South Pleasant high activation .508^§ -.068

Korea Pleasant low activation .384^* -.039

Unpleasant high activation -.207^* .485^§

Unpleasant low activation -.286^* .389^*

China Pleasant high activation .377^* -.338^*

Pleasant low activation .277^* -.315^*

Note. Correlation ^*low, ^§moderate, ^†moderately high.

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Table 3. Total, direct, and indirect effects for paths from emotional states to eating cravings via perceptions of being an emotional eater (N = 2485)

Effect β SE Bootstrap Bias-

Corrected 95% CI (Lower Upper) Pleasant High Activation States to Craving Experience

Total .097 0.07 -.037 .233

P+ → Emotional Eater → CravExp .030 0.02 -.008 .068

P+ → CravExp .067 0.07 -.063 .196

Pleasant Low Activation States to Craving Experience

Total -.018 0.07 -.146 .111

P- → Emotional Eater → CravExp .010 0.02 -.026 .046

P- → CravExp -.028 0.06 -.147 .097

Unpleasant Low Activation States to Craving Experience

Total .055 0.04 -.017 .124

U+ → Emotional Eater → CravExp -.022 * 0.01 -.044 -.002

U+ → CravExp .077 * 0.03 .010 .143

Unpleasant High Activation States to Craving Experience

Total .289 * 0.04 .218 .364

U- → Emotional Eater → CravExp .138 * 0.02 .110 .168

U- → CravExp .151 * 0.04 .078 .228

Pleasant High Activation States to Give into Craving

Total .049 0.07 -.089 .182

P+ → Emotional Eater → Give in .028 0.02 -.007 .063

P+ → Give in .021 0.07 -.111 .152

Pleasant Low Activation States to Give into Craving

Total .013 0.07 -.118 .147

P- → Emotional Eater → Give in .009 0.02 -.024 .042

P- → Give in .004 0.07 -.123 .133

Unpleasant Low Activation States to Give into Craving

Total .039 0.04 -.033 .110

U+ → Emotional Eater → Give in -.020 * 0.01 -.040 -.002

U+ → Give in .059 0.04 -.009 .127

Unpleasant High Activation States to Give into Craving

Total .283 * 0.04 .214 .353

U- → Emotional Eater → Give in .127 * 0.02 .098 .158

U- → Give in .156 * 0.04 .081 .229

Pleasant High Activation States to DifResist Craving

Total .092 0.07 -.056 .233

P+ → Emotional Eater → DifResist .033 0.02 -.009 .074

P+ → DifResist .059 0.07 -.077 .189

Pleasant Low Activation States to DifResist Craving

Total -.048 0.07 -.183 .091

P- → Emotional Eater → DifResist .011 0.02 -.028 .051

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Unpleasant Low Activation States to DifResist Craving

Total .019 0.04 -.058 .093

U+ → Emotional Eater → DifResist -.024 * 0.01 -.047 -.002

U+ → DifResist .043 0.04 -.028 .113

Unpleasant High Activation States to DifResist Craving

Total .419 * 0.04 .348 .493

U- → Emotional Eater → DifResist .152 * 0.01 .124 .181

U- → DifResist .267 * 0.04 .193 .345

Note. Significance indicated via 95% CI. β = standardized estimate; SE = Standard error; CI

= Confidence Interval; P+ = Pleasant High Activation States; P- = Pleasant Low Activation States; U+ = Unpleasant High Activation States; U- = Unpleasant Low Activation States;

CravExp = Craving experience; Give in = Give into craving; DifResist = Difficulty resisting cravings

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Table 4. Total, direct, and indirect effects for paths from emotional states to health outcomes and routines via perceptions of being an emotional eater (N = 2485)

Effect β SE Bootstrap Bias-

Corrected 95% CI (Lower Upper) Pleasant High Activation States to Physical Health

Total -.104 .070 -.242 .030

P+ → Emotional Eater → Physical Health -.018 .011 -.041 .002

P+ → Physical Health -.087 .070 -.226 .046

Pleasant Low Activation States to Physical Health

Total -.077 .067 -.205 .055

P- → Emotional Eater → Physical Health -.004 .010 -.024 .016

P- → Physical Health -.073 .067 -.202 .057

Unpleasant High Activation States to Physical Health

Total -.021 .036 -.091 .050

U+ → Emotional Eater → Physical Health .012 * .006 .001 .024

U+ → Physical Health -.033 .036 -.102 .036

Unpleasant Low Activation States to Physical Health

Total -.028 .035 -.098 .042

U- → Emotional Eater → Physical Health -.075 * .014 -.103 -.049

U- → Physical Health .047 .038 -.029 .123

Pleasant High Activation States to Emotional Health

Total .011 .064 -.112 .136

P+ → Emotional Eater → Emotional Health .026 .015 -.003 .057

P+ → Emotional Health -.015 .062 -.136 .108

Pleasant Low Activation States to Emotional Health

Total .058 .061 -.060 .177

P- → Emotional Eater → Emotional Health .006 .015 -.023 .034

P- → Emotional Health .052 .060 -.064 .170

Unpleasant High Activation States to Emotional Health

Total .040 .034 -.025 .107

U+ → Emotional Eater → Emotional Health -.018 * .008 -.035 -.002

U+ → Emotional Health .058 .033 -.005 .123

Unpleasant Low Activation States to Emotional Health

Total .084 * .035 .017 .153

U- → Emotional Eater → Emotional Health .110 * .014 .082 .139

U- → Emotional Health -.026 .037 -.096 .050

Pleasant High Activation States to Reported Eating

Total .332 * .074 .190 .484

P+ → Emotional Eater → Reported Eating .013 .008 -.002 .029

P+ → Reported Eating .319 * .074 .178 .470

Pleasant Low Activation States to Reported Eating

Total -.232 * .072 -.378 -.096

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P- → Emotional Eater → Reported Eating .003 .007 -.011 .018

P- → Reported Eating -.235 * .071 -.379 -.099

Unpleasant High Activation States to Reported Eating

Total .019 .037 -.055 .089

U+ → Emotional Eater → Reported Eating -.009 * .004 -.018 -.001

U+ → Reported Eating .028 .036 -.045 .095

Unpleasant Low Activation States to Reported Eating

Total .270 * .039 .194 .346

U- → Emotional Eater → Reported Eating .054 * .013 .028 .080

U- → Reported Eating .216 * .042 .134 .297

Pleasant High Activation States to Wellbeing

Total -.013 .073 -.161 .127

P+ → Emotional Eater → Wellbeing -.022 .013 -.049 .003

P+ → Wellbeing .009 .072 -.135 .147

Pleasant Low Activation States to Wellbeing

Total .064 .069 -.069 .202

P- → Emotional Eater → Wellbeing -.005 .012 -.030 .019

P- → Wellbeing .069 .069 -.064 .207

Unpleasant High Activation States to Wellbeing

Total .004 .037 -.068 .075

U+ → Emotional Eater → Wellbeing .015 * .007 .001 .030

U+ → Wellbeing -.011 .037 -.084 .059

Unpleasant Low Activation States to Wellbeing

Total -.160 .037 -.235 -.088

U- → Emotional Eater → Wellbeing -.094 * .014 -.123 -.067

U- → Wellbeing -.067 .040 -.145 .012

Note. Significance indicated via 95% CI. β = standardised estimate; SE = Standard error; CI = Confidence Interval; P+ = Pleasant High Activation States; P- = Pleasant Low Activation States; U+ = Unpleasant High Activation States; U- = Unpleasant Low Activation States