CHIEF EDITOR Sergio Palma
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile lajar@ucv.cl
ASSOCIATE EDITORS Patricio Arana
Pontifícia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile
José Angel Alvarez Perez Universidade do Vale do Itajaí, Brasil
Claudia S. Bremec
Instituto de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero, Argentina
Walter Helbling Estación de Fotobiología Playa Unión, Argentina Nelson Silva
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile
Oscar Sosa-Nishizaki
Centro de Investigación Científica y Educación Superior de Ensenada, México
Erich Rudolph Universidad de Los Lagos, Chile
Ingo Wehrtmann
Universidad de Costa Rica, Costa Rica
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE Juan Carlos Castilla
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile
Fernando L. Diehl Asociación Brasilera de Oceanografía, Brasil Enrique Dupré
Universidad Católica del Norte, Chile
Rubén Escribano Universidad de Concepción, Chile Pierre Freón
Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement, Francia
Michel E. Hendrickx Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México Carlos Moreno
Universidad Austral de Chile, Chile
Oscar Pizarro
Universidad de Concepción, Chile Guido Plaza
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile
Ricardo Prego Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (CSIC), España
Financiamiento parcial de CONICYT obtenido en el Concurso “Fondo de Publicación de Revistas Científicas año 2011”
Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso Casilla 1020, Valparaíso, Chile-Fax: (56-32) 2274206, E-mail: lajar@ucv.cl
Ramón Ahumada
Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
Christopher Aiken
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
Marcelo Araneda
Universidad Marista, Mérida, México
Javier Arata
Instituto Antártico Chileno, Punta Arenas, Chile
Miguel Araya
Universidad Arturo Prat, Iquique, Chile
Allison Astuya
Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
Trevor Avery
Acadia University, Nova Scotia, Canada
Pedro Báez
Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, Santiago, Chile
Asbjørn Bergheim
International Research Institute of Stavanger AS, Stavanger, Norway
José Luis Blanco
Instituto de Fomento Pesquero, Valparaíso, Chile
Bjørn R. Braaten
Consultant, Norway
Sandra Bravo
Universidad Austral de Chile, Puerto Montt, Chile
Timothèe Brochier
Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Sète Cedex, France
Aliro Bórquez
Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco, Chile
Enrique E. Boschi
Instituto de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero, Mar del Plata, Argentina
Germán Bueno
Universidad Arturo Prat, Iquique, Chile
Ángel Campa
Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, La Paz, México
Mariel Campalans
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
Cristian Canales-Ramírez
Instituto de Fomento Pesquero, Valparaíso, Chile
Cristian Canales-Aguirre
Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
Wilmer Carbajal
Universidad Nacional Pedro Ruiz Gallo, Lambayeque, Perú
Bernard Casellez
Ecole Normale Superieure, Paris, France
José Francisco Cerna
Instituto de Fomento Pesquero, Valparaíso, Chile
Javier V. Chong
Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
Patricio Dantagnan
Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco, Chile
Roberto de Andrade
Consultor FAO, Santiago, Chile
Patricio de los Ríos
Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco, Chile
Juan Pablo Díaz
Universidad Arturo Prat, Iquique, Chile
Asbjørn Drengstig
HOBAS, Norway
Enrique Dupré
Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile
Esteban Emparanza
Billund Aquaculture Chile S.A., Puerto Montt, Chile
Juan Manuel Estrada
Universidad Andrés Bello, Quintay, Chile
Ronan Fablet
Ecole National Telecom, Bretagne, France
Héctor Flores
Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile
José Gallardo
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
Marcelo García
Subsecretaría de Pesca, Valparaíso, Chile
Orlando Garrido
Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
Enric Gisbert
Institut Recerca I Tecnologia Agroalimentàries, Sant Carles de la Ràpita, España
María L. González
Universidad de Los Lagos, Osorno, Chile
Marcelo González
Instituto Antártico Chileno, Punta Arenas, Chile
Ángel Guerra
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Madrid, España
Juan Carlos Gutiérrez
Carlos Felipe Hurtado
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile Instituto del Mar de Perú, Callao, Perú Rocío Joo
Myounghee Kang
MIRYAX, Tasmania, Australia Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Montpellier, France David Kaplan
Narayanan Kutty
Aquaculture/Fisheries Consultant, Palakkad, India Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile Jaime Letelier
Karin Lohrman
Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile Universidad de Los Lagos, Osorno, Chile Daniel López
Adrián Madirolas
Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Pesquero, Mar del Plata, Argentina
Jaques Masse
Institut Français de Recherche pour l`Exploitation de la Mer, Nantes, France
Germán Merino
Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile Jaime Meruane
Vivian Montecino
Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia Luis C. Montenegro
Carlos Moreno
Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile Jorge Navarro
Edwin Niklitscheck
Universidad Austral de Chile, Coyhaique, Chile Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile Alberto Olivares
Roxana Olvera-Ramírez
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México D.F., México Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile Álvaro Palma
Jorge Páramo
Universidad del Magdalena, Santa Marta, Colombia Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile Luis Pardo
Germán Pequeño
Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
Alejandro Pérez Camacho
Instituto Español de Oceanografía, La Coruña, España
Eduardo Pérez
Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile Guido Plaza
Dante Queirolo
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
Hugo Robotham
Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago, Chile
Joan Sebastian Salas-Leiva
Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile Instituto de Fomento Pesquero, Valparaíso, Chile Rodolfo Serra
Nelson Silva
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
Brian C. Small
Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, USA
Wolfgang Stotz
Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile Instituto de Mar del Perú, Callao, Perú Jorge Tam
María Isabel Toledo
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
Pedro Toledo
Universidad Católica del Norte, Antofagasta, Chile
Jorge Toro
Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
Antonio Ugalde
Universidad de Playa Ancha, Valparaíso, Chile
Eduardo Uribe
Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile
Alfonso Valenzuela
Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso Casilla 1020, Valparaíso, Chile-Fax: (56-32) 2274206, E-mail: lajar@ucv.cl Ingo S. Wehrtmann
Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
Mary Wicksten
Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, USA
Oscar Zúñiga
CONTENTS Reviews
Patricio De los Rios-Escalante & Italo Salgado
Artemia (Crustacea, Anostraca) in Chile: a review of basic and applied biology. Artemia (Crustacea, Anostraca) en Chile: revisión de la biología básica y aplicada ………..………...….487-496
Ingo S. Wehrtmann, Patricio M. Arana, Edward Barriga, Adolfo Gracia& Paulo Ricardo Pezzuto
Deep-water shrimp fisheries in Latin America: a review. Pesquerías de camarones de aguas profundas en América Latina: una revisión………...……….………...…497-535 Research Articles
Héctor Flores & Alex Vergara
Efecto de reducir la frecuencia de alimentación en la supervivencia, crecimiento, conversión y conducta alimenticia en juveniles de salmón del Atlántico Salmo salar (Linnaeus, 1758): experiencia a nivel productivo. Effect of reducing the feeding frequency on the survival, growth, conversion, and feeding behavior of juvenile Atlantic salmon Salmo salar (Linnaeus, 1758): an experience at the productive level………. 536-544
Andrés Abarca, Jörn Bethke, Edgar Narváez, Roberto Flores& Luis Mercado
Parameters to evaluate the immunostimulant effect of Zymosan A in head kidney leucocytes (HKL) of salmonids. Parámetros para la evaluación del efecto de Zimosán A como inmunoestimulante sobre leucocitos de riñón cefálico (HKL) de salmónidos………...545-552 Carlos Méndez & Eduardo Uribe
Control of Branchionus sp. and Amoeba sp. in cultures of Arthrospira sp. Control de Branchionus sp. y Amoeba sp. en cultivos de Arthrospira sp..………...…553-561 Patricio Dantagnan, Astrid Domínguez, Aliro Bórquez, Javier Alcaíno, Claudio Pavez & Adrián Hernández
Influencia del α-tocoferol en la incorporación y peroxidación del ácido araquidónico en alevines parr de salmón del
Atlántico (Salmo salar L.). Influence of α-tocopherol on arachidonic acid deposition and peroxidation in Atlantic salmon
(Salmo salar L.) fingerlings ……….……….……562-577 Avelino Muñoz, Elio Segovia & Héctor Flores
Deshabituación alimentaria y crecimiento de juveniles de Graus nigra (Philippi, 1887) en condiciones de cultivo. Wearing and growth of juveniles Graus nigra (Philippi, 1887) under culture conditions ………….………..…………578-583
Avelino Muñoz, Elio Segovia& Héctor Flores
Acondicionamiento de reproductores, desove y cultivo larval de Graus nigra (Philippi, 1887) (Kyphosidae: Girellinae). Broodstock conditioning, spawning and larval culture of Graus nigra (Philippi, 1887) (Kyphosidae: Girellinae)………....584-595 Daniel A. López, Boris A. López, Sergio E. Arriagada, Oscar A. Mora, Paula C. Bedecarratz, Mauricio O. Pineda, María L. González, Lorenzo I. Andrade, José M. Uribe & Verónica A. Riquelme
Diversification of Chilean aquaculture: the case of the giant barnacle Austromegabalanus psittacus (Molina, 1782). Diversificación de la acuicultura chilena: el caso del cirripedio gigante Austromegabalanus psittacus (Molina, 1782)………596-607 Andrés Guajardo & Claudia Navarrete
Gestión adaptativa en áreas marinas protegidas de Chile: un método para su evaluación. Adaptive management of marine protected areas in Chile: a method for his evaluation ………..…….608-612
Javier Porobić, Carolina Parada, Billy Ernst, Samuel E. Hormazábal & Vincent Combes
Modelación de la conectividad de las subpoblaciones de la langosta de Juan Fernández (Jasus frontalis), a través de un modelo biofísico. Modeling the connectivity of Juan Fernández rock lobster (Jasus frontalis), subpopulations through a biophysical model.………..…...…613-632
Mariano Gutiérrez, Ramiro Castillo, Marceliano Segura,Salvador Peraltilla& Miguel Flores
Trends in spatio-temporal distribution of Peruvian anchovy and other small pelagic fish biomass from 1966-2009. Tendencias espacio-temporales en la distribución de la biomasa de anchoveta peruana y de otros peces pelágicos pequeños entre 1966 y 2009………..…633-648
Yu Tao, Chen Mingru, Du Jianguo, LuZhenbin& Yang Shengyun
Age and growth changes and population dynamics of the black pomfret (Parastromateus niger) and the frigate tuna (Auxis thazard thazard), in the Taiwan Strait. Cambios en la edad y el crecimiento y dinámica poblacional de la palometa negra (Parastromateus niger) y del atún fragata (Auxis thazard thazard), en el estrecho de Taiwán...649-656 Isabel Andrade, Samuel E. Hormazabal & Marco A. Correa-Ramirez
Ciclo anual de la clorofila-a satelital en el archipiélago de Juan Fernández (33ºS), Chile. Annual cycle of the satellite chlorophyll-a in the Juan Fernandez archipelago (33ºS), Chile ………..……657-667 Jorge E. Moreno, Carlos A. Méndez, Jaime A. Meruane & María C. Morales
Descripción histológica y caracterización de los estados de madurez gonadal de hembras de Cryphiops caementarius (Molina, 1782) (Decapoda: Palaemonidae). Histological description and characterization of the ovarian cycle of Cryphiops caementarius (Molina, 1782) (Decapoda: Palaemonidae)……….…...……668-678 Renato Molina, René Cerda, Exequiel González & Felipe Hurtado
Simulation model of the scallop (Argopecten purpuratus) farming in northern Chile: some applications in the decision making process. Modelo de simulación para el cultivo del ostión (Argopecten purpuratus) en el norte de Chile: aplicaciones para la toma de decisiones ……….……….…679-693 Alejandro Abarca, Doris Oliva, Rodrigo Gutiérrez, Ángela Celis & L. René Durán
Grown-out of seeds of the taquilla clam Mulinia edulis (King & Broderip, 1832) in the subtidal zone in northern Chile and in the intertidal zone in southern Chile. Engorda de semillas de la almeja taquilla Mulinia edulis (King & Broderip, 1832) en la zona submareal en el norte y en la zona intermareal en el sur de Chile …..……….…694-704 Marco Espino & Carmen Yamashiro
La variabilidad climática y las pesquerías en el Pacífico suroriental. Climate variability and fisheries in the southeastern Pacific...….………. 705-721
Guillermo Moyano, Guido Plaza&María Isabel Toledo
Otolith micro-structure analysis of rainbow trout alevins (Oncorhynchus mykiss) under rearing conditions. Análisis de la micro-estructura de otolitos en alevines de trucha arcoiris (Oncorhynchus mykiss) en cautiverio ………... 722-729 María C. Morales & Jaime Meruane
Indicadores de condición larvaria aplicados al camarón de río del norte Cryphiops caementarius (Molina, 1782), en condiciones de cultivo controlado. Larval condition indicators applied to the northern river shrimp Cryphiops caementarius (Molina, 1782), under condition of controlled cultivation ………..………... 730-742
Alvaro Saavedra, Jorge Castillo, Edwin J. Niklitschek& J.C. Saavedra-Nievas
Reducing uncertainty and bias in acoustic biomass estimations of southern blue whiting (Micromesistius australis) in the southeastern Pacific: transducer motion effects upon acoustic attenuation. Reduciendo el sesgo e incertidumbre de las estimaciones hidroacústicas de biomasa de merluza de tres aletas (Micromesistius australis) en el Pacífico suroriental: efectos del movimiento del transductor sobre la atenuación acústica………...………...….. 743-754
Elio Segovia, Avelino Muñoz & Héctor Flores
Water flow requirements related to oxygen consumption in juveniles of Oplegnathus insignis. Requerimientos de flujo de agua en función del consumo de oxígeno en juveniles de Oplegnathus insignis ……….. 755-762 Elizabet Rojas, Marcela Ávila & Gustavo Parada
Aplicación de estrategias nutricionales y su efecto en el crecimiento en el cultivo continuo de Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis). Application of nutritional strategies and their effect in continuous culture of Spirulina (Arthrospira
platensis)………..………..763-771
Carlos Carroza, Felipe Hurtado & Xavier Gutierrez
Nitrogenated compounds’ biofiltration under alternative bacterium fixation substrates. Biofiltración de compuestos nitrogenados bajo medios de fijación bacteriana alternativos………772-785 Andrés González, Rodrigo Vega, María Ángela Barbieri & Eleuterio Yáñez
Determinación de los factores que inciden en la captura incidental de aves marinas en la flota palangrera pelágica chilena. Determination of factors affecting the bycatch of seabirds in Chilean pelagic longline fleet………..……...786-799 Short Communications
Asbjørn Bergheim
Recent growth trends and challenges in the Norwegian aquaculture industry. Tendencias recientes de crecimiento y desafíos de la industria acuícola en Noruega……….………..800-807
Ranferi Gutiérrez, Ana Farías,Gabriel Yany & Iker Uriarte
Interacciones macho-hembra del pulpo rojo patagónico Enteroctopus megalocyathus (Cephalopoda: Octopodidae) durante el comportamiento de apareamiento. Male-female interactions of Patagonian red octopus Enteroctopus
megalocyathus (Cephalopoda: Octopodidae) during mating behavior………..……..…808-812
Marcelo Concha, Claudia Cerda & Mariana Zappi
Enfoque sistémico para el diseño de sistemas energéticos acuícolas resilientes: discusión aplicada al caso de una empresa de cultivos. Systematic approach to design resilient energy systems to aquaculture: discussion applied in a private hatchery……….……….813-821
PRESENTATION
The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean on the planet and also the least known, particularly the southeastern Pacific region. Therefore, it is mandatory to extend the environmental knowledge of this vast basin, so as to contribute to evaluate and manage their current and potential resources on a sustainable basis. In order to contribute to the oceanographic knowledge in the southeastern Pacific, the School of Marine Sciences of the Catholic University of Valparaiso organized the International Conference “Environment and Resources in the South Pacific", which was convened mainly to address issues concerning to the understanding of this ecosystem, now under exploitation, as well as to enhance the comprehension of fishing and aquaculture activities developing in coastal and ocean areas in the Pacific Ocean.
This conference was held in Viña del Mar (Chile), between 23 and 27 November 2010. This Special Issue of the Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research contains the papers presented at that time and then accepted for publication.
PRESENTACIÓN
El océano Pacífico corresponde a la mayor extensión oceánica del planeta y al mismo tiempo la menos conocida, particularmente en la región del Pacífico suroriental. Por esta razón, es de especial relevancia ampliar el conocimiento ambiental de esta vasta cuenca para contribuir a evaluar y manejar de manera sustentable, los actuales y potenciales recursos que contiene como una forma de contribuir al conocimiento oceanográfico del Pacífico suroriental, la Escuela de Ciencias del Mar de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso organizó la Conferencia Internacional “Ambiente y Recursos en el Pacífico Sur”, que fue convocada fundamentalmente para abordar temas asociados a la comprensión, de este ecosistema sometido actualmente a explotación, así como también orientado a analizar las actividades pesqueras y acuícolas que se desarrollan en los sectores costeros y oceánicos de este océano.
Esta Conferencia se realizó en Viña del Mar (Chile), entre el 23 y 27 de noviembre de 2010. El presente Número Especial de la revista Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research contiene los artículos presentados en dicha oportunidad y que fueron aceptados para su publicación.
DOI: 103856/vol40-issue3-fulltext-1
Review
Artemia (Crustacea, Anostraca) in Chile: a review of basic and
applied biology
Patricio De los Rios-Escalante1 & Italo Salgado2
1
Universidad Católica de Temuco, Facultad de Recursos Naturales Escuela de Ciencias Ambientales, Casilla 15-D, Temuco, Chile
2
Universidad Católica de Temuco, Facultad de Recursos Naturales Escuela de Acuicultura, Casilla 15-D, Temuco, Chile
ABSTRACT. The brine shrimp Artemia in Chile has been studied since the 1980s, initially on populations inhabiting shallow coastal and inland mountain ponds, and saltworks in northern and central Chile. Based on morphometric and molecular evidence, these populations were identified as A. franciscana. In the 1990s, A. persimilis was recorded from southern Patagonia, a species previously considered endemic to Argentina. Recently, two new populations of A. franciscana have been recorded, from one saline coastal pond in northern Chile and from a saltwork in central Chile. The scope for further research to increase both understanding of the strain characterization and basic population ecology descriptions of the Chilean brine shrimps and improve their conservation status is discussed. It is suggested that future studies should investigate first the management of local brine shrimp population for local aquaculture or conservation resources, other direction would be the effects of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposition that is notoriously high in brine shrimp habitats. This last factor is very important because the UVR is an important mutagen on the genetic structure of the populations. In this scenario, it is suggest a carefully management for introduced brine shrimp populations for local aquaculture for avoid alterations in native populations that due their genetic isolation would need conservation procedures for avoid local extinctions.
Keywords: Artemia, saline lakes, ultraviolet radiation, aquaculture, Chile.
Artemia (Crustacea, Anostraca) en Chile: revisión de la biología
básica y aplicada
RESUMEN. El camarón de salmuera o Artemia ha sido estudiado en Chile desde la década de 1980, las primeras descripciones de poblaciones fueron para lagunas someras en zonas costeras y de montaña, y en salinas artificiales en la zona central y norte de Chile. Sobre la base de evidencias morfométricas y moleculares estas poblaciones fueron descritas como A. franciscana. En la década de 1990, se describió la presencia de A. persimilis en la zona sur de la Patagonia, lo cual fue una ampliación del rango de distribución significativa, pues esta especie se le consideró endémica de Argentina. Recientemente dos nuevas poblaciones de A. franciscana fueron reportadas en una laguna somera en el norte y para una salina artificial en la zona central. El objetivo del presente estudio fue realizar una investigación para entender la caracterización de poblaciones y ecología básica de las poblaciones chilenas del camarón de salmuera y discutir como mejorar el estado de la conservación de estas. Se discute que a futuro los estudios se deberían enfocar primero al manejo de poblaciones nativas para acuicultura local o como un recurso para su conservación, otras orientaciones de estudio, podrían ser los efectos de la radiación ultravioleta (UVR) que es notoriamente alta en los hábitats del camarón de salmuera. Este último factor es importante porque la radiación ultravioleta es un agente mutágeno importante en la estructura genética de las poblaciones. En este escenario, se sugiere un manejo cuidadoso de las poblaciones introducidas del camarón de salmuera para la acuicultura local, con el fin de evitar alteraciones en las poblaciones nativas que debido a su aislamiento genético necesitarían procedimientos para su conservación con el fin de evitar extinciones locales.
Palabras clave: Artemia, lagos salinos, radiación ultravioleta, acuicultura, Chile. ___________________
INTRODUCTION
The brine shrimp Artemia is a cosmopolitan crustacean inhabiting saline lakes and ponds in all continents with the exception of Antarctica. In the New World, the genus is represented by the species
Artemia franciscana Kellog, 1906, and A. persimilis
Piccinelli & Prosdocimi, 1968 (Amat et al., 1994a, 1994b; Triantaphyllidis et al., 1998). The first descriptions of Chilean brine shrimp were published in the early 1990s (Zúñiga et al., 1991, 1994; Gajardo et
al., 1992, 1995; Gajardo & Beardmore, 1993; Wilson et al., 1993; Amat et al., 1994b). Prior to 1996, A. franciscana was reported from inland and coastal
shallow ponds and one saltwork (Amat et al., 1994b, Table 1 and Fig. 1). In 1996, one population from a saline shallow pond in southern Patagonia (Campos et
al., 1996) was reported and identified as A. persimilis
(Gajardo et al., 1998, 2000; De los Ríos & Zúñiga, 2000; Table 1). More recently, two more populations of A. franciscana have been reported, from a saltwork in central Chile (De los Ríos, 2000, Table 1) and from one shallow coastal pond in northern Chile (Crespo & De los Ríos, 2004). Finally, one population of A.
persimilis from a saline lake on Fireland Island (De
los Ríos, 2005; Table 1) has been discovered. STRAINS CHARACTERIZATION
The two species in South America, A. franciscana and
A. persimilis, were first recognised by Amat (1980)
and Hontoria & Amat (1992). Gajardo et al. (1995), in a series of studies using allozymes and/or cytogenetics, investigated the genetic structure of A.
franciscana (Gajardo et al., 1992, 1995; Gajardo &
Beardmore, 1993), and A. persimilis as well (Gajardo
et al., 2000, 2001) from Torres del Paine National
Park in Chilean southern Patagonia. Gajardo et al., (1995) concluded that genetic differences between the strain affecting the individuals from all known Chilean populations of A. franciscana are correlated with the inter-population extent of its geographical distribution and ecological isolation. Later, Gajardo et al. (2001) showed that the chromocentre numbers of A.
franciscana populations from Chile and other Central
and South American localities relate directly with the latitude of the habitats (Table 2). Most recently Gajardo et al. (2004) have assessed the pattern of variation of mitochondrial DNA of Chilean brine shrimps by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. They have confirmed that the species
A. franciscana occurs between latitudes 20º to 33°S
and the species A. persimilis is distributed between latitudes 34º to 51°S.
Figure 1. Geographic locations in Chile with Artemia populations.
Figura 1. Localización geográfica de las poblaciones de
Artemia en el territorio chileno.
There is some uncertainty concerning the species identity of the Salar de Atacama and Pichilemu populations. Gajardo et al. (1995) in a study of nine populations concluded that the individuals of brine shrimp at Pichilemu (38°48’S, 72°10’W) belong to A.
franciscana. However, the results from subsequent
morphological (Gajardo et al., 1998), cytogenetic (Colihueque & Gajardo, 1996; Gajardo et al., 2001), where chromosome and chromocentre complements of 2n = 44 and 0 to 6 respectively have been recorded), and mitochondrial DNA (Gajardo et al., 2004) studies all yield evidences indicating that Pichilemu brine shrimps belong to A. persimilis. Gajardo et al. (2004) have suggested that the presence of A. persimilis at this locality is possibly indicative of an hybrid zone.
Table 1. List and geographical location of sites in Chile with presence of Artemia populations in according to the literature.
Tabla 1. Lista y localización geográfica de sitios en Chile con presencia de poblaciones de Artemia según la literatura.
Name Species Geographical localization Reference
Salar de Surire A. franciscana 18°48’S, 69°04’W Zúñiga et al. (1999)
Salar de Llamara A. franciscana 21°18’S, 69°37’W Zúñiga et al. (1999)
Plata Yape pools (Iquique) A. franciscana 20°40’S, 70°15’W Gajardo et al. (1998)
Salar de Atacama: Cejas Lagoon A. franciscana 23°02’S, 68°13’W Zúñiga et al. (1999)
Salar de Atacama: Tebenquiche Lagoon A. franciscana 23°07’S, 68°16’W Zúñiga et al. (1999)
La Rinconada Lagoon A. franciscana 23°26’S, 70°30’W Crespo & De los Ríos (2004)
Pampilla pools A. franciscana 29°58’S, 71°22’W Zúñiga et al. (1999)
Palo Colorado pools (Los Vilos) A. franciscana 31°58’S, 71°35’W Gajardo et al. (1998)
El Convento salt pond A. franciscana 33°52’S, 71°48’W De los Ríos (2000)
Pichilemu saltwork A. persimilis (?) 34°48’S, 72°10’W Gajardo et al. (1998)
Amarga Lagoon (Torres del Paine) A. persimilis 50°29’S, 72°45’W Gajardo et al. (1998)
De los Cisnes Lagoon A. persimilis 53°14’S, 70°00’W De los Ríos (2005)
Table 2. Citogenetical characteristics of Artemia populations and frontal knob diameter described in the literature.
Tabla 2. Características citogenéticas y diámetro del lóbulo frontal de poblaciones de Artemia descritas según la literatura.
Name Species Chromosome
number
Chromocentre number
Diameter frontal knob
Salar de Surire A. franciscana No data No data No data
Salar de Llamara A. franciscana No data 13.8 194.3
Plata Yape pools (Iquique) A. franciscana 42 14.82 211.0
Salar de Atacama: Cejas Lagoon A. franciscana 44 4.36 196.4
Salar de Atacama: Tebenquiche Lagoon A. franciscana No data No data No data
La Rinconada Lagoon A. franciscana No data No data No data
Pampilla pools A. franciscana No data No data 198.9
Palo Colorado pools (Los Vilos) A. franciscana 42 10.09 183.9
El Convento salt pond A. franciscana No data 10.8 148.2
Pichilemu saltworks A. persimilis 44 0 No data
Amarga Lagoon (Torres del Paine) A. persimilis No data 0 301.5
De los Cisnes Lagoon A. persimilis No data No data No data
The morphological study done by Gajardo et al. (1998), provides further evidence for the presence of both A. franciscana and A. persimilis in Chile. The size of the male frontal knob is an important distinctive character to distinguish A. franciscana from A. persimilis (De los Ríos & Zúñiga, 2000). The average diameter of the frontal knob in A. franciscana is 200 μm and in A. persimilis is 300 μm (De los Ríos & Zúñiga, 2000; Table 2). This structure is used in sexual coupling; with differences in shape allowing the reproductive isolation (Mura, 1989; Mura et al., 1989).
ECOLOGICAL STUDIES
A. franciscana: these populations are located in three
main habitat types: the first comprises coastal shallow ponds; the second are found in artificial saltworks; and the third and better studied group comprises populations in inland saline shallow ponds (Amat et
al., 1994b; Zuñiga et al., 1994, 1999; Gajardo et al.,
1998). There are three populations in coastal shallow ponds. The first population is in northern Chile, in Yape pools (20°40’S, 70°15’W). The second is located in central Chile in Pampilla (29°58’S, 71°22’W) and Palo Colorado pools (31°58’S;
Ta ble 3 . C h emical features of Artemia h ab it ats d escrib ed i n th e literatu re. Ta bla 3. C arac terí st icas quí m icas de há bi ta ts de Arte mia d escrito s en la literatu ra. Percent of tota l m ajor ions Nam e Salinit y (ppt) Na + K + Ca +2 Mg +2 Cl - SO 4 -2 CO 3 -2 HCO 3 -2 Sa la r de Surire 102 No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data Salar d e Llamar a 167 No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data
Plata Yape pools
(1) 52 169 680 660 202 30,400 4,720 No data 160 Salar d e Atacama: C ejas Lagoon (2) 292 51.7 2.4 0.6 2.6 64.7 43. 6 No data No data Salar d e Atacama: Tebenqu ich e Lagoon (1) 233 79,000 5,300 290 4,500 123,900 19,000 240 600 La R inconad a Lagoon 80 No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data Pam p illa poo ls 45 No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data Palo Color ado p
ools (Los Vilos)
75 32.5 1.3 1.3 3.8 53.3 7.6 < 0.1 0.2 El Conv
ento salt pond
No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data Pichilemu saltw orks 115 No data No data No data No data No data No data No data No data Amarga Lagoon (Torres d el Pain e) (3) 123 3,661.6 187.6 14.7 1,729. 3 8,084.4 359.9 2,148.0 10,227.7 De los Cisnes Lagoon No data No data No data No da ta No data No data No data No data No data Referen ces : 1) A m at et al . (1994 b), 2) Zúñig a et al. (1994) ; 3) Campos et al. (199 6). All salinity d ata
were obtained from Zúñig
a et al. (1999), with ex ception o f La Rin conada Lagoon (Cr espo & De los Ríos, 2 004) and Amarg a Lagoon (C ampos et a l. , 1996) .
71°25’W) (Amat et al., 1994b; Gajardo et al., 1998; Zúñiga et al., 1999). The habitats in each of these areas are similar in being located in ephemeral habitats at the upper high tidal level of rock beaches and with chemical characteristics similar to seawater (Amat et al., 1994b; Gajardo et al., 1998; Zúñiga et
al., 1999, Table 3). The hydrological conditions of the
shallow coastal ponds are an important factor regulating reproductive cycles of the brine shrimp. The brine shrimp reproduce oviparously, producing cysts in natural conditions of a strong salinity increase (Amat et al., 1994b; Gajardo et al., 1998; Zúñiga et
al., 1999). No ecological studies of brine shrimp have
been undertaken in this habitat, but it is probable thatthe shrimps graze on bacteria and microalgae and simultaneously they would be prazed by occasional sea birds.
A population of A. franciscana described by Crespo & De los Rios (2004) from a previously permanent pond near Antofagasta is a noteworthy example of how changeable shallow ponds habitats may be. This habitat initially was described as hypersaline, and the halophilic microalgae
Dunna-liella salina Teodoresco and Halobacterium were
recorded from the site (Gomez-Silva et al., 1990). However, following a strong earthquake that affected the area in 1995, the pond was flooded with fresh water. A. franciscana was subsequently recorded from the pond in the years 2000 and 2003 (Crespo & De los Rios, 2004) probably as a resulted from artificial inoculation. A. franciscana probably has been introduced by human intervention into artificial saltworks (Gajardo et al., 1995; De los Ríos & Zúñiga, 2000). Although neither saltwork population has been the subject of detailed ecological studies, according to Zúñiga et al. (1994). Both salt works have been operating during the last ninety years (De los Ríos & Zúñiga, 2000) and detailed studies into the dynamics of their resident brine shrimp populations, population succession and community structures are warranted.
The brine shrimp populations of inland saline lakes occur in shallow mountain ponds located mainly between 18º to 23°S (Zúñiga et al., 1999). Northern Chile is markedly arid, experiencing weak rains during the “Bolivian winter” of January and February. The ponds of the mountain and plains are all associated with saline deposits of volcanic origin (Chong, 1984) and brines of these saline lakes have relatively high sulphate concentrations (Zúñiga et al., 1991, 1994, 1999; Gajardo et al., 1992, Table 3). The salinities of these ponds vary widely. In waters with salinity concentrations <90 g L-1, the calanoid copepod Boeckella poopoensis is the dominant member of zooplankton (De los Ríos & Crespo, 2004;
De los Ríos & Gajardo, 2010a, 2010b; De los Ríos-Escalante 2010). In lakes with water salinity concentrations >90 g L-1, members of the genus
Artemia are the dominant member of the zooplankton
(Hurlbert et al., 1986; Williams et al., 1995). Predation by adult B. poopoensis on Artemia nauplii is probably the main factor reducing the abundance of the brine shrimps with salinity concentrations <90 g L
-1
(Hurlbert et al., 1986; Hammer & Hurlbert, 1992). Where Artemia do occur abundantly, the crustacean would play a key ecological role as the main grazer, through non selective filter feeding on the producer organisms (which includes halobacteria, cyanobacteria, diatoms and halophilic microalgae such as Dunaliella salina (Zúñiga et al., 1991, 1994; Demergasso et al., 2003). These upland Artemia habitats are sites for feeding and nesting of aquatic birds such as Chilean flamingo (Phoenicopterus
chilensis), Andean flamingo (Phoeni-coparrus andinus), James flamingo (Phoenicoparrus jamesi)
and Wilson Phalarope (Phalaropus tricolor). The three species of flamingos are important for Artemia populations, because two of these species (P. andinus and P. jamesi) graze on phytoplankton and bacteria, and therefore probably compete directly with the brine shrimp for food sources. However, Chilean flamingos potentially would predate on brine shrimp because these waterfowl feed non selectively on zooplankton (López, 1990). Brine shrimp reproduce ovovivi-parously only in permanent lakes with very high salinity concentrations. In these situations there is no cyst production and the population numbers decline over time with increasing salinity. The affected populations regenerate under optimal environmental conditions of low salinity concentrations from a few surviving individuals (Zúñiga et al., 1994, 1999). Regarding dispersal, the inland saline lakes are located east and west of the Andes mountains between 18º to 23°S, an area within the migration route of flamingos. Flamingos have been implicated as an agent capable of dispersing brine shrimp. Indeed, dispersal by flamingos may explain the presence of A. franciscana in saline lakes of northern Chile (Gajardo et al., 1998, De los Ríos & Zúñiga, 2000), Argentina (Papeshi et
al., 2000) and adjacent areas of Peru and Bolivia
(Triantaphyllidis et al., 1998).
A. persimilis: the Chilean populations of A. persimilis occur mainly in southern Patagonia
(Gajardo et al., 1998; De los Rios & Zúñiga, 2000; De los Ríos, 2005; De los Ríos & Gajardo, 2010a, 2010b), with biological studies having focused on Amarga lagoon, inside Torres del Paine National Park. The water bodies in this area inhabited by A. persimilis have high chloride and sulphate concentrations
(Campos et al., 1996). According to Campos et al. (1996), the biotic components are mainly cyano-bacteria and a few diatoms grazed by rotifers and brine shrimp. Again, the predator of Artemia is probably the Chilean flamingo P. chilensis (Soto, 1990; Campos et al., 1996). In the Patagonian sites, brine shrimp and copepods can coexist in spite of the different salinity tolerances of both groups (De los Ríos & Gajardo, 2010, De los Ríos-Escalante & Gajardo, 2010). The presence of A. persimilis in southern Patagonia may be due to dispersal via water birds migrating from central Argentina to southern Chile (Gajardo et al., 1998; De los Ríos & Zúñiga, 2000). Certainly, the very low altitude of the Andes mountains in the region would not constitute a barrier to migrating water fowl, and therefore to dispersal of brine shrimp. Further, A. persimilis probably shows optimal survival and fecundity in lower salinity concentrations and temperatures than A. franciscana (Sorgeloos et al., 1986). Lakes with low salinity concentrations and low temperatures are typically observed in southern Patagonia, and these conditions presumably suit better the presence of A. persimilis. FUTURE DIRECTIONS
This review is concluded by discussing directions for future studies on Chilean brine shrimps, mainly with respect to their ecology and management. At present time the ecological information available is restricted or relies on inferences. Also, little published information is available concerning the management and use of these biological resources (Zúñiga & Wilson, 1996). The effects of exposure to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) (Cabrera et al., 1995; Villafañe et al., 2001) needs to be investigated, particularly the impacts regulating zooplankton communities and affecting mutation rates (Hebert et al., 2002; Friedberg, 2003).
Management: the increasing demand of Artemia cysts for aquaculture has caused high levels of cysts harvesting from the main source, Great Salt Lake, Utah, USA. A flow-on effect has been the artificial inoculation of cysts in saltworks in Brazil, Vietnam and other countries, and also the search for alternative brine shrimp strains and species to culture (Lavens & Sorgeloos, 2000). The increase of aquaculture activities had led to an increase in the importation of brine shrimp cyst into Chile. However, the uncontrolled use of exotic strains and species, may potentially pose a significant threat to many Chilean
Artemia populations by displacement of native strains
(De los Ríos & Gajardo, 2004). Unfortunately insufficient information is available on the use of Chilean brine shrimp populations for aquaculture,
although some populations have relative good growth and survival response in controlled and semi-controlled conditions (Zúñiga & Wilson, 1996; De los Ríos, 2001). Nevertheless, the best results in studies of mass culture of Chilean brine shrimp were obtained using populations from coastal shallow ponds, because shrimp from these sources produce cysts in natural conditions (Zúñiga et al., 1999). Also, the brines of these habitats have ionic composition similar to seawater (Amat et al., 1994b; Zúñiga et al., 1999), representing favourable conditions for marine aquaculture because they do not need to divert energy to cope with different chemical conditions, and thereupon should grow and reproduce efficiently (Bowen et al., 1985). The opposite situation was reported for populations from the sulphate-enriched brines of inland lakes. Shrimp from these sources have low fecundity and growth rates when reared in seawater (Zúñiga & Wilson, 1996).
Consequently, local aquaculture activities based on brine shrimp will, in all likelihood, use stock from habitats with high chloride concentrations, such as A.
franciscana from coastal ponds or saltworks, or A. persimilis from southern Patagonian lakes. In the case
of A. persimilis from southern Patagonia, the shrimp inhabit regions with difficult weather conditions, namely heavy rainfall in winter and strong 100 km h-1 winds in summer (Soto et al., 1994; Campos et al., 1996). Aquaculture under such conditions may be economically difficult. Similar difficulties may apply for brine shrimp aquaculture based on saltworks in central Chile because the area sometimes experiences strong rains in winter (Niemeyer & Cereceda, 1984) that would generate considerable losses for aqua-culture producers.
Finally, northern Chile presents at least two important advantages for brine shrimp aquaculture: low rainfall, and an environment rich in natural nitrate and phosphorus fertilizers (Chong, 1988). Another important advantage includes the abundance of native, high quality live foods for Artemia such as the halophilic microalgae D. salina (Gómez-Silva et al., 1990; Araneda et al., 1992a, 1992b). High yields have been achieved using shallow coastal strains in out-door culture at intermediate production scales (Zúñiga & Wilson, 1996). The results from studies to date indicate that future directions for research into Chilean brine shrimp aquaculture must focus on achieving economical and technical advances for establishing intensive and extensive production scales.
Ultraviolet effect on brine shrimp: in recent years, levels of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) have been increasing substantially, in Chile (Cabrera et al., 1995)
mainly in southern Patagonia (Villafañe et al., 2001) but also in the tropical Andes (Villafañe et al., 1999; Helbling et al., 2002). Ultraviolet radiation is an important mutagen, changing the molecular structure of DNA (Friedberg, 2003). Consequently, the biota of shallow aquatic habitats lacking photoprotective strategies to avoid or repair the damage caused by exposure to UVR, may be particularly susceptible to UVR-induced damage (Villafañe et al., 2001; Helbling et al., 2002). Since brine shrimp have many advantages for use in culture and in genetics (Gajardo & Beardmore, 2001), three lines of study into effects of UVR on brine shrimp are likely to produce useful results.
a) Studies at the cellular scale into the mutagenic effects of UVR on the nucleotide sequence of DNA may reveal genetic changes in successive generations. Such changes are known to occur in halophilic crustaceans (Hebert et al., 2002). Gajardo & Beardmore (1993) and Gajardo et al., (1995, 2004) described genetic isolation and differentiation of Chilean brine shrimp populations. It may be important, with respect to conservation issues, to ascertain whether populations with year-round exposure to high UVR levels, for example in tropical zones, have substantially higher mutation rates compared with populations from areas with exposure to low UVR levels.
b) A second line of studies would investigate the effects of UVR on individual organisms. The shallow ponds inhabited by brine shrimps typically have a maximum depth between 1-15 m (Zúñiga et al., 1999), and UVR penetrates to the bottom of the water column (Villafañe et al., 2001). Consequently, the resident zooplankton is exposed to high levels of UVR against which the organisms require protection, such as provided by photoprotective photorepair or antio-xidant substances such as melanin, carotenoid pigments or ascorbic acid (Villafañe et al., 2001; Hessen et al., 2002). For example, freshwater Arctic daphnid crustaceans are exposed to high levels of UVR during summer, and synthezise and accumulate substances which provide protection against high levels of UVR. Boeckella titicacae (= B. gracilipes) from Lake Titicaca, in the tropical Andes (Helbling et
al., 2002) synthezise a micosporine-like amino acid,
and calanoids from shallow ponds in southern Patagonia also synthezise protective pigments (Rocco
et al., 2002), for example.
Although the response of Artemia to UVR has not been studied, it is likely that marked red or orange coloration of juveniles and adult specimens of tropical latitudes (Zúñiga & De los Ríos, personal obser-vations) have a photoprotective or photorepairing
function. Thick chorionic membranes of cysts of brine shrimp from inland mountain habitats (Zúñiga et al., 1999) may also constitute evidence of exposure to high levels of UVR. These inland shrimp does not produce cysts under natural conditions, but under extreme controlled conditions they can produce a few cysts with a thick chorionic membrane (Zúñiga et al., 1999). This feature may be an adaptative response to high levels of insolation exposure and UVR, since similar results were described for cysts from tropical populations of brine shrimp (Amat, 1982). Elucidation of the effects of UVR on Artemia would seem to be a fruitful line of investigation to follow.
c) A third line of studies would investigate the effects of UVR on the population structure and dynamics of Chilean brine shrimp. In marked contrast to the information concerning the effects of UVR on brine shrimp, much information has been published concerning daphnid exposure to UVR from northern hemisphere freshwaters.
Presumably, exposure to high levels of UVR radiation involves individuals affected in expending energy and metabolites to produce photoprotective substances (Hessen, 1996; Hessen et al., 1999). Given this possibility, exposure to UVR would cause mortality in different life stages, lower fecundity in adults, and slow growth rate of individuals. However, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) may be providing protection against UVR (Morris et al.,1995; De los Ríos, 2003). Many of the saline and brackish aquatic ecosystems of the Atacama desert and in southern Patagonia have a wide gradient of concentrations of DOC (De los Ríos, 2003). Consequently, it is reasonable to predict that there would be marked differences in the energy spent by individuals in developing photo-protection that would affect fecundity, individual growth, and absolute abundance of various populations (Rautio, 1998; Winder, 2001; Rautio & Korkhola, 2002a, 2002b). Indeed, integrated laboratory and field studies involving an array of brine shrimp natural sites and investigating the effect of variation in levels of protection provided by different concentrations of DOC protection against UVR damage, may be an important line of research to pursue in Chile from the sandpoint of conserving natural stocks of brine shrimp at a time of major changes in atmospheric conditions of planet Earth.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their gratitude to Brenton Knott for their important contributions and comments to this study. Also express their gratitude to the organizers of 5th of International Large Branchiopod Symposium,
the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences of the University of Western Australia (Australia). The information was obtained by funding of the Inter American Institute for Global Change (I.A.I), CONICYT-Chile (Grant for Doctoral Thesis support and Doctoral Grant), and Research and Development Direction of the Austral University of Chile. Finally, the authors express their gratitude to the Research Direction and Biological and Chemical Sciences Department of the Catholic University of Temuco (Chile) for the financing of the presentation of the present study in 5th of International Large Branchiopod Symposium, and Southern Pacific Conference (Valparaíso, Chile, 2010).
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DOI: 103856/vol40-issue3-fulltext-2
Review
Deep-water shrimp fisheries in Latin America: a review
Ingo S. Wehrtmann1, Patricio M. Arana2, Edward Barriga3, Adolfo Gracia4 & Paulo Ricardo Pezzuto5
1
Unidad de Investigación Pesquera y Acuicultura (UNIP), Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Marinas y Limnología (CIMAR), Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
2
Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
3
Instituto del Mar del Perú, Callao, Perú
4
Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, DF, México
5
Universidade do Vale do Itajaí, Itajaí, SC, Brasil
ABSTRACT. Commercial fisheries are expanding their activities into deeper water. The life history features of these deep-water resources make them more vulnerable to exploitation than most shallow-water resources. Moreover, the apparent lack of solid information about the ecology of most deep-water species represents a major limitation for the development and implementation of management strategies. This scenario has caused great concern regarding the sustainability of these resources and the possible environmental impacts on the deep-sea ecosystem. In Latin America, commercial fisheries are going deep as well, and considering the above-mentioned concerns, we felt the need to compile the available information about the deep-water shrimp resources and the current status of their fisheries in Latin America. Focusing on Mexico, Central America, Peru, Chile and Brazil, this review describes the exploited species, and, whenever available, the fishing fleet, fishery statistics, and management strategies. A total of 17 species (10 spp. of Penaeoidea; 7 spp. of Caridea) are of commercial interest in Latin America, but deep-water shrimps are currently fished only in Costa Rica, Colombia and Chile. An implemented management plan exists in Chile and Colombia, while Brazil approved fishery regulations for the aristeid fishery, which were never implemented. Considering the lack of information about the biology of the deep-water shrimps, which hinders the development of adequate management strategies, we see the urgent need to improve the communication and collaboration between the different stakeholders in Latin American. We suggest the establishment of a searchable and constantly updated database, which may serve as a valuable source of information for researcher and decision makers. Finally, we propose the development of regional research plans aimed towards supporting measurements for a sustainable use of deep-water shrimps in Latin America.
Keywords: sustainability, management, fishery statistics, Penaeoidea, Caridea, Brazil, Mexico, Central America, Colombia, Peru, Chile.
