Marine
Research and Management
Editors
V.N. Pillai and N.G. Menon
Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute
(Indian Council of Agricultural Research)
Tatapuram P.O., Cochin-682 014
Kerala, India
10
Sea cucumbers
D.B. J a m e s
ABSTRACT
Sea cucumbers are a group of economically important echlnoderms with a wide range of distribution in coral to mangrove habitats. Out oj 200 species known Jrom Indian seas, 75 are from shallow seas; while only a dozen of them belonging to Holothuridae and Stichopodia are large with thick body wall and hence commercially important. They occur in exploitable concentration in the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Lakshadweep and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The paper presents family, genera and species key to identification along with the
de-scription and distribution of important species. The paper also re-views their ecology, animal association, parasites, biotoxicity, collec-tion, handling and processing for heach-de-mer, conservation and management and hatchery and culture in Indian situation.
INTRODUCTION
Sea c u c u m b e r s belong to a group of spiny-skinned a n i m a l s which also include the s t a r fishes, sea feathers, brittle s t a r s a n d the sea u r c h i n s . They are entirely marine and economically important. They occur from the supra-littoral zone to the hadal zone. They occur in corals, rocky, s a n d y , muddy and mangrove h a b i t a t s . The length ranges from a few millimetres to nearly two metres. There are over 650 species of sea c u c u m b e r s known from the various p a r t s of the world. In the seas a r o u n d India, nearly 200 species are known, of which 75 are from the shallow waters within 20 m e t r e s d e p t h . Of these, only a b o u t a dozen are commercially important. Large sea c u c u m b e r with a thick bodywall can be used for processing. Processed s e a c u c u m b e r is known as beche-de-mer and is a delicacy for the Chinese who u s e it specially on festive occasions. The technique for processing of sea c u c u m b e r s was
duced into India by the Chinese more t h a n one t h o u s a n d y e a r s back. It is a cottage i n d u s t r y needing very little investment. The J a p a n e s e a n d the Kore-a n s c o n s u m e Stichopus JKore-aponicus in fresh condition.
Classification
Sea c u c u m b e r s belong to the class Holothuroidea. which is divided into five orders viz., Dendrochirota, Aspidochirota, Elaslpoda, Molpadonla and Apoda chiefly on the b a s i s of the s h a p e of the tentacles. In dendrochirotlds., the tentacles are b r a n c h e d which help In the collection of planktonic food. These are evident only when the animal is fully relaxed and u n d i s t u r b e d . At the slightest d i s t u r b a n c e they retract their tentacles inside t h e body cavity. In aspidochlrotids the tentacles are peltate with a stalk ending in a b u n c h . The majority of the h o l o t h u r i a n s on the coral reefs belong to t h i s order. In Molpadonla, the tentacles are digitate and the tubefeet are a b s e n t . In Apoda, the tentacles are p i n n a t e and the tubefeet are a b s e n t a s the n a m e Indicates. Many of the worm like sea c u c u m b e r s belong to this order. The elasipods are bizarre in a p p e a r a n c e with large conical papilla, marginal rims a n d tall-like a p p e n d a g e s . They Inhabit the deep s e a s . The various families In Dendrochirota a r e chiefly s e p a r a t e d b a s e d on t h e s h a p e of t h e c a l c a r e o u s r i n g . In aspldochlrotes the families are differentiated b a s e d on the s h a p e of the body a n d distribution of pedicels and papillae. The species identification can be done only b a s e d on the examination of spicules embedded in the skin. Gen-eral classification of sea c u c u m b e r s Is given by Hyman (1955) a n d Nichols (1966). There is no comprehensive systematic work on the sea c u c u m b e r s of the world. The family Holothuridae was covered by P a n n i n g (1929-1935), Deichmann (1958) and Rowe (1969). Clark {1922)dealt the family Stlchopodldae in some detail. The families Cucumarlldae and Phyllophoridae were dealt with by P a n n i n g (1949) a n d Heding and Panning (1954). Clark (1907) wrote on the a p o d o u s h o l o t h u r i a n s and Heding (1928) published an a c c o u n t on the fam-ily S y n a p t i d a e . J a m e s ( 1 9 6 7 , 1 9 6 8 , 1 9 7 8 , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 4 , 1986, 1995a,
1995b) published a n u m b e r of papers on the taxonomy of sea c u c u m b e r s from the seas a r o u n d India. He described a new family, two new species a n d reported some new records from India.
Resources
Although nearly 200 species of sea c u c u m b e r s are distributed In the seas a r o u n d India, only about a dozen specie's are of commercial Importance.
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Only species belonging to the families Holothurldae a n d Stichopodidae are of commercial importance since they are large in size and the body wall is also thick. These are distributed in good n u m b e r s on the reefs In the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay and the A n d a m a n and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep. A brief account of the commercially important species found in the seas a r o u n d India is given below.
Species belonging to the two families can be easily s e p a r a t e d . Members belonging to the family Holothurldae are t u b u l a r in s h a p e with thick and firm body wall a n d also the gonadal t u b u l e s are arranged in a single b u n c h . Mem-bers belonging to the family Stichopodidae are often massive with the body wall soft. It becomes gelatinous on exposure to air. The gonadal t u b u l e s are arranged In two b u n c h e s .
Key to t h e commercially important fam^ilies
Body t u b u l a r , s k i n t h i c k a n d firm, g o n a d a l t u b u l e s in s i n g l e b u n c h holothurldae
Body sometimes four sided, skin becomes gelatinous after collection,
gonadal t u b u l e s in two b u n c h e s stichopodidae In the family Holothurldae, three genera are commercially important.
They can be s e p a r a t e d by the following key.
Key t o t h e genera of t h e family Holothurldae
1. Anal opening s u r r o u n d e d by five 'teeth'
like s t r u c t u r e s Actinopyga r . Anal opening not s u r r o u n d e d by five 'teeth' like s t r u c t u r e s
2
2. Anal opening s u r r o u n d e d by five groups of calcareous papillae, cuvierian t u b u l e s profuse Bohadschia.
2'. Anal opening not s u r r o u n d e d by 'teeth' or papillae, cuvierian t u b u l e s when p r e s e n t not profuse Holothuria
Genus Actinopyga B r o n n , 1 8 6 1
All the species belonging to t h i s g e n u s are of low value. They are distrib-u t e d in t h e Gdistrib-ulf of M a n n a r , the A n d a m a n a n d Nlcobar I s l a n d s a n d t h e Lakshadweep. Two species are extensively processed from the Gulf of M a n n a r since 1989. The different species are Identified based on the colour p a t t e r n and also the complexlcity of spicules.
Key to t h e s p e c i e s of Actinopyga
1. Colour completely black, a n a l 'teeth' distinctly seen, dorsal side
con-vex and ventral side flat A.miliaris 1. Colour uniformly brown or brown and white 2
2. Colour brick red on the dorsal side a n d white on the ventral slde;often found n e a r the low water mark A.mauritiana
2'. Colour uniformly brown with wrinkles on the dorsal side with s a n d set-tling on it A.echinites
Actinopyga miliaris ( 9 u o y & Gaimard)
Common name: Blackfish Local nam.e: Pal Altai (In Tamil) Trade name: Tuty Black
Black in colour, sometimes with a brown ventral side. Length ranges from 2 0 - 3 0 cm and live weight r a n g e s from 0.5 to 2 kg.Cylindrical with five anal 'teeth' a n d the tubefeet arranged in three rows on the ventral side. Bodywall is 8 mm in t h i c k n e s s found mainly in water less t h a n three metre depth on the reef flats. Low to m e d i u m in v a l u e . It s h o u l d be p r o c e s s e d w i t h o u t c u t t i n g . A. miliaris is commercially the most i m p o r t a n t a m o n g the species of Actinopyga since it is very a b u n d a n t in easily accessible h a b i t a t s . This species w a s p r o c e s s e d for t h e first time from t h e Gulf of M a n n a r in
1990. During 1 9 9 1 , 30.7 t o n n e s , 1992, 31.8 t o n n e s a n d in 1993, 18.7 t o n n e s of processed m a t e r i a l were exported. After t h r e e y e a r s t h e r e a r e clear signs
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of over-exploitation. Since this was exported in large quantities from Tuticorin this species e a r n e d the t r a d e n a m e 'Tuty Black'.
Distribution:lt is known from the I s l a n d s of the Western Indian Ocean, M a s c a r e n e I s l a n d s , E a s t Africa a n d M a d a g a s c a r , Red S e a , M a l d i v e s , Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, E a s t Indies, North Australia, Phil-ippines, China and S o u t h e r n J a p a n , S o u t h Pacific Islands, Hawaiian I s l a n d s . In the s e a s a r o u n d India it is known from the Gulf of M a n n a r , t h e A n d a m a n and Nicobar I s l a n d s a n d the Lakshadweep.
Actinopyga mauritiana (Quoy & Gaimard)
Common name : Surf Redfish
Body is almost cylindrical with a flat ventral side. Three rows of tubefeet are seen on the ventral side. Length ranges from 20 to 30 cm and live weight varies from 0,5 to 1 kg. Body wall is 6 mm in t h i c k n e s s . Colour In the living condition is brick red on the dorsal side and white on the ventral side. Found only on the outside of reefs where the surf b r e a k s . Distribution extends u p t o 5 m depth. The tubefeet are firmly attached to the coral rocks to prevent the animal from being carried away by the waves. Average density is several h u n -dred individuals per h e c t a r e . Low to medium commercial value. Processed like teatflsh b u t the body should not be cut. There is no exploitation of t h i s from the Gulf of M a n n a r now. One kg of processed material costs US$ 6.50. Distribution: It is distributed in the Islands of the Western Indian Ocean, M a s c a r e n e I s l a n d s , E a s t Africa a n d M a d a g a s c a r , Red S e a , M a l d i v e s , Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, E a s t Indies, North Australia, Philip-pines, China a n d S o u t h e r n J a p a n , S o u t h Pacific Islands and Hawaiian Is-l a n d s . In the seas a r o u n d India, it is known from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep. A single processed sample was collected from R a m a n a t h a p u r a m .
Actinopyga echinites (Jaeger)
Common name : Deep-water Redfish Local name: Paar Attai (In Tamil)
The local name refers to its habit on Paars (coral b a n k s ) . Length ranges from 15 to 30 cm and the live weight varies from 0.5 to 1 kg. The body Is wider
in the middle, ta])ers towards the ends and h a s slightly wrinkled dorsal sur-face. Colour is uniformly brown. Body is generally covered with a fine coating of s a n d . The fishing g r o u n d s are mostly off the chain of Islands in t h e Gulf of Mannar at a d e p t h of 3 to 7 m. At p r e s e n t beyond 7 m depth diving is not carried out since the visibility Is poor. The resource however s e e m s to be good beyond 7 m. Sometimes they are found to be distributed in the intertidal region also as seen in the Andaman and Nlcobar Islands and the Lakshadweep. For the first time this species was processed from the Gulf of M a n n a r in 1989. 16,5, 4.5 and 0.8 t o n n e s were processed during 1990, 1991 a n d 1992 respec-tively. It is a medium-valued species a n d one kg of processed material costs only US$ 4.00.
Distribution: It is known from the Islands of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, E a s t Africa a n d Madagascar, Maldives, Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, Bay of Bengal, E a s t Indies, Philippines, China a n d s o u t h e r n J a p a n and South Pacific I s l a n d s . In the s e a s a r o u n d India it is known from the Gulf of M a n n a r , the A n d a m a n a n d Nlcobar Islands a n d the Lakshadweep.
Genus Bohadschia Jaeger, 1 8 3 3 .
Massive forms with distinct a n a l papillae, often burled or covered with a fine coat of m u d . Cuvierian t u b u l e s are profuse a n d b e c a u s e of this process-ing is difficult. Species belongprocess-ing to this g e n u s have m o d e r a t e value. Two species are known from the seas a r o u n d India.
Key t o t h e s p e c i e s of Bohadschia
C o l o u r b l a c k or b r o w n w i t h d i s t i n c t 'eye' like s p o t s all over t h e body B. argus.
Colour variable, yellow with fine brown spots B.marmorata.
Bohadschia argus Jaeger
Common name: Leopardfish or Tigerfish
It grows to a large length of 600 mm. Colour in the living condition is brown or black. Body Is cylindrical with very smooth surface. Live weight varies from 1 to 2 kg. At the slightest d i s t u r b a n c e cuvierian t u b u l e s are thrown out. Distinct eye-spots are found all-over the body which are encircled with
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light yellow a n d white grey colours. In the Lakshadweep however, the speci-m e n s are black in colour. The eye spots are seen in a p a r t i c u l a r angle. It occurs on coarse s a n d in 2 to 6 m depth. A few pieces of shell and coarse s a n d u s u a l l y sticks to the body. This species is a b u n d a n t in the Lakshadweep. It is a low valued species and one kg of processed material costs US $ 4.50.
Distribution: It is known from t h e Islands of the Western Indian Ocean, Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, A n d a m a n s , East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China and S o u t h e r n J a p a n a n d South Pacific Islands. In the seas a r o u n d India it is known from the A n d a m a n a n d also from the Lakshadweep.
Bohadschia marmorata (Jaeger)
Common name:Chalkyfish a n d Brown sandfish
Length of the body ranges from 150 to 350 mm, live weight ranges from 0.5 to 2 kg. Body is s h o r t and thick with the ventral surface slightly flattened. Profuse cuvierian t u b u l e s are released if the animal is d i s t u r b e d . Colour is golden brown with small dark-brown dots. Common in shallow w a t e r s and b u r i e s itself in silty s a n d s . It is distributed in d e p t h s of 2 to 15 m. It h a s low commercial value. Processed like teatfish b u t w i t h o u t cutting. Processing should be done with great care b e c a u s e the body of this species t e n d s to fall a p a r t after harvesting and during boiling. One kg of processed material costs US $ 2.50 to 4.00.
Distribution : It is known from the Islands of the Western Indian Ocean, E a s t Africa and Madagascar, Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, A n d a m a n s , East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China a n d S o u t h e r n J a p a n and S o u t h Pacific I s l a n d s . In the seas a r o u n d India it is known from the Gulf of M a n n a r and Palk Bay, the A n d a m a n and Nicobar Islands a n d the Lakshadweep.
Genus Holothuria Linnaeus, 1 7 6 4
This is by far the most i m p o r t a n t g e n u s for processing. Over 100 species are known u n d e r this g e n u s .
Key t o t h e s p e c i e s of Holothuria
1. Body loaf-like with very thick bodywall.In the living condition a b o u t six pairs of lateral teat-like projections are seen, body with black and white p a t c h e s Holothuria nobilis.
r . Body t u b u l a r , bodywall not very thick, no lateral projections in the living condition.... 2
2. Body completely black in colour, red colour comes off w h e n h a n d l e d in the living condition Holothuria atra
2'. Colour not completely black a n d no red colourcomes off when live speci-m e n s are h a n d l e d 3
3. Yellow t r a n s v e r s e b a n d s on the dorsal side of the body ; ventral side white with a n u m b e r black dots H. scabra 3'. Body uniformly brown in colour small stiff projections all over the
body, highly burrowing form H.spinifera
Holothuria scabra Jaeger
Common n a m e : Sandfish
Local name: Vella attai in Tamil refers to t h e white colour on t h e ventral side.
It grows to a length of 450 mm. The body is s t o u t with flattened e n d s . The dorsal side is convex a n d the ventral side is flat. It h a s p r o m i n e n t wrinkles on the dorsal side. The dorsal side is black with white or yellow t r a n s -verse b a n d s . The ventral side is white with fine black d o t s . Found in silty s a n d often near somewhat low saline a r e a s and frequently on Cymodoceabeds. It s p e n d s p a r t of t h e day burled in the s a n d with the posterior end always on the surface of the m u d . It occurs from the Intertldal region u p t o 10 m depth. Small forms (50 to 90 mm in length) are also seen to be lying freely on the muddy g r o u n d s during low tide. At some places there are 2 to 10 specimens distributed in an a r e a of five sq.m. J u v e n i l e s are distributed n e a r the shore. As they grow they migrate to deeper w a t e r s for breeding. It is gregarious in n a t u r e a n d its density may reach several h u n d r e d Individuals per h e c t a r e . It is t h e m o s t widely distributed species Stichopus Japonicus. This is the most extensively p r o c e s s e d a n d also the m o s t expensive species in t h e world. Processing is shghtly complicated due to excessive chalky deposits In the bodywall. After bolhng, this species is burled near t h e shore where the s a n d is wet to allow the bacteria p r e s e n t In the s a n d to act on t h e o u t e r layer of the
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skin and make it loose and soft. This p r o d u c t is now thoroughly washed in sea water to remove all the white chalky deposits. A pea crab Pinnotheres deccanensis is found to live inside the cloacal chamber of this species. About 10% of t h i s specimens examined were found to have this c r a b .
The seed of t h i s species w a s produced for the first time a t Tuticorin Research Centre of Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute in 1988 by inducing them to spawn by thermal stimulation. The fecundity is u p t o one million. The eggs are spherical and J u s t visible to the naked eye. Fertilization is external. Auricularia, doliolaria a n d p e n t a c t u l a larvae are formed a n d they settled down on the bottom of the t a n k at the end of 15 days. The larvae are fed on t h e microalga Isochrysis galbana and the Juveniles on t h e extract of algae like Sargassum sp. They grow fast and in two m o n t h s time they reach a length of 20 mm. when they can be transferred to the sea and grown in con-crete rings.
Distribution: It is known from Mascarene Islands, East Africa and Mada-gascar, Red Sea, S o u t h E a s t Arabia, Sri Lanka, Gulf of M a n n a r a n d Palk Bay, Andaman and Nlcobar Islands, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China and S o u t h e r n J a p a n and South Pacific Islands.
Holothuria nobilis Selenka
Common n a m e : Teatfish or Mammyfish
Body loaf-shaped with teat-like projections in t h e live condition inside water. Bodywall 10 to 12 mm in t h i c k n e s s . It r e a c h e s a length of 400 mm and live weight varies from 2 to 3 kg. It occurs in two colour forms. It is generally black in colour. Small forms have cream or orange flecks. In t h e other form the colour ranges from yellowish white to grey-brown. On both the colour forms there is a fine coating of coral s a n d . Some specialists refer the white form a s H. fuscogilva. The white and black forms normally occur in different h a b i t a t s . Black form is-more common on shallow reef bottom in the lagoon where there Is no wave action. Young forms occur on t u r t l e - g r a s s b e d s . The white form is more common on coral slabs n e a r reef p a s s a g e s or at the foot of the lagoon side reef slopes. Average density is two a n i m a l s per h e c t a r e . This is high value species. The buyer believes the white forms are t r u e sea c u c u m -bers and therefore they pay more price for them,. Each kg of processed mate-rial cost US $ 6.00 to 14.00 depending on colour. Black form is a b u n d a n t In
some of the lagoons of the Lakshadweep.
Distribution: It is known from the Islands of the Western Indian Ocean,
Mascarene Islands, East Africa and Madagascar, Red Sea, Maldives, Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, Andamans, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China and Southern Japan, South Pacific Islands and the Hawaiian Islands. Recently one white form is collected from the Gulf of Mannar.
Holothuria atra Jaegar
Common name: Lollyfish
Local name:Kuchii attaHin Tamil) refers to stick-like shape on
processing.
This is the most abundant sea cucumber in the seas around India and elsewhere. Body is cylindrical with a smooth surface. It is uniformly black in colour and reaches a length of 600 mm. When live specimens are handled a red fluid stains the hand. This red fluid is a toxin known as holothurln. Sometimes this species is covered by a fine coat of sand except for circular patches along the sides where papillae are situated. This sand coating takes place if there is fine suspension of sand in the water. It oc-curs on dead coral reef flats with sandy or muddy patches. It prefers areas where calcareous alga Halimeda sp. is abundant as it feeds on it. It
usu-ally occurs in 1 to 5 m depth. In some areas 10 to 15 specimens are found in 25 sq.m. area. On the reef flat the length ranges from 200 to 300 mm and on the outer edge of the reef the specimens reach 600 mm in length. Small quantities of this species was processed in the Andamans in 1976 for the first time . (n the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay this species is proc-essed from 1992. During the year, 28 tonnes was procproc-essed. This species spawned several times in the hatchery during the months of August and September but the larvae failed to settle. Since the skin is thin and the value Is low this species is not preferred for processing. One kg of proc-essed material costs only one US dollar.
Distribution: This is one of the most widely distributed species in the
Indo-Pacific region. It Is known from the Islands of the Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene Islands, East Africa and Madagascar, Red Sea, South
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E a s t Arabia, P e r s i a n Gulf, Maldives, A r a b i a n Sea, L a k s h a d w e e p , Sri Lanka, A n d a m a n a n d Nicobar I s l a n d s , E a s t I n d i e s , North A u s t r a l i a , P h i l i p p i n e s , C h i n a a n d S o u t h e r n J a p a n , S o u t h Pacific I s l a n d s a n d Hawaiian I s l a n d s . In t h e s e a s a r o u n d India,It is known from t h e Gulf of M a n n a r a n d Palk Bay, t h e A n d a m a n a n d Nicobar I s l a n d s a n d t h e L a k s h a d w e e p .
Holothuria spinifera Theel
Common n a m e : Brownfish
Local name:Cheena Attai or Raja Attai
Length 250 to 3 0 0 mm. Colour uniformly light brown with s h a r p projec-tions all over the body. The lower side is generally lighter in colour. The papil-lae project out sharply all over the body, hence the n a m e spinifera . It is never encountered in t h e intertidal region. They are collected from 12 to 16 m depth. It is found on clean s a n d . It is highly burrowing form a n d b u r i e s com-pletely Into t h e s a n d . At Rameswaram there is a good fishery for this species from J u n e to September. They a r e mostly collected by Chankumadi during one day a n d one night. On a n average 20 t o n n e s of material is landed a n n u -ally at Rameswaram. This species was once collected for high quality b u t in recent years this species is not preferred by the b u y e r s . It is processed along with H.scabra since the processing method is s a m e . At p r e s e n t it h a s low m a r k e t value. One kg of processed material costs US $ 2.0 to 4 . 0 .
Distribution: It is known from the Red sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mannar a n d Palk Bay, Sri Lanka, North Australia a n d Philippines. In t h e seas a r o u n d India it is known only from the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay.
Family : Stichopodidae
Members of this family grow to massive size, some of them reaching a length of nearly one metre. In some t h e live weight is u p t o 6 kg. The body is loaf-shaped a n d in some it Is q u a d r a n g u l a r . The bodywall is soft and on expo-s u r e to air it becomeexpo-s gelatinouexpo-s.
Key t o the genera of t h e family stichopodidae
Body massive with n u m e r o u s large pointed t e a t s in groups on the dorsal side Thelenota
No p o i n t e d t e a t s on t h e d o r s a l side, body s o m e t i m e s q u a d r a n g u l a r Stichopus
Genus Thelenota Brandt, 1 8 3 3
Only one species is known from the Indian s e a s .
Thelenota ananas (Jaeger)
Common name: Prickly Redflsh
This species r e a c h e s a length of 700 mm. Thickness of the bodywall varies from 15 to 20 mm, live weight ranges from 1 to 6 kg. Very distinctive a p p e a r a n c e b e c a u s e of n u m e r o u s large pointed t e a t s in groups of two or three all over the body surface. There are n u m e r o u s large tubefeet on t h e flat ven-tral side. Colour in live condition reddish-orange, with the t e a t s d a r k e r t h a n the body surface. The tubefeet on the ventral side is bright orange. However the specimens from the Lakshadweep are brown on the dorsal side a n d bright orange on the ventral side. Distributed on clean s a n d y bottom at a d e p t h of 2 to 30 m. It Is rarely found in the lagoons of Lakshadweep. It feeds on the calcareous alga Halimeda s p . Average density is 20 a n i m a l s per h e c t a r e . This is a medium value sjjecies. The d e m a n d for this common species h a s grown over recent y e a r s . It is now commonly harvested a n d processed for export to China, attracting quite high prices. Processing similar to teatflsh. Bodywall is cut on the ventral side to within 30 mm of each end. One kg of processed material costs US $ 11.50.
Distribution: It is known from Mascarene Island, Lakshadweep, Maldives, East Indies, North Australia, China and S o u t h e r n J a p a n and S o u t h Pacific Islands.The record of Tikeder et al (1986) from the A n d a m a n s n e e d s confir-mation.
Genus Stichopus Brandt, 1 8 3 5
Some of the species belonging to this g e n u s r e a c h a length of 900 mm. Body will disintegrate a n d becomes gelatinous when t a k e n out of water. Needs special t r e a t m e n t for processing.
Key t o t h e s p e c i e s of Stichopus
Body q u a d r a n g u l a r with four rows of large finger-likeprocesses. Colour
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Body massive and loaf-like with Irregular b r o w n p a t c h e s on yellow grey b a c k g r o u n d S. uariegatus
Stichopus chloronotus Brandt
Common n a m e : Greenfish
This species r e a c h e s a length of 300 mm. The t h i c k n e s s of the bodywall varies from 2 to 6 mm. Live weight varies from 0.2 to 0.4 kg. Body is q u a d r a n -gular in s h a p e a n d roughly s q u a r e in cross section with large p r o m i n e n t pa-pillae at the corner of each s q u a r e . Body surface is smooth. Tubefeet are arranged In three rows on the ventral side colour very dark green, appearing almost black, the tips of the papillae are orange. It is distributed on reef flats or on broken coral rubble, at d e p t h s of 0 to 5 m in a r e a s where there is m u c h water movement. In some of the lagoons of the Lakshadweep it is distributed in large n u m b e r s . Average density is several h u n d r e d individuals per h e c t a r e . This species h a s medium value. One kg of processed material costs US $ 9.00.
Distribution: It is a widely distributed species. It is known from t h e Is-l a n d s of Western Indian Ocean, Mascarene IsIs-land, E a s t Africa and Madagas-car, Maldives, Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, A n d a m a n a n d Nlcobar Islands, East Indies, North Australia, Philippines, China and S o u t h e r n J a p a n , S o u t h Pa-cific Islands and Hawaii.
Stichopus variegatus Semper
Common n a m e : Curryfish
Localname: Mul Attai {In Tamil) refers to 'spine-like' projections espe-cially in young forms.
It r e a c h e s a length of 900 mm and the t h i c k n e s s of the body wall ranges from 10 to 15 mm. Live weight varies from 1 to 6 kg. Body is loaf-shaped, roughly s q u a r e in cross section. Dorsal surface Is convex with rough surface bearing many tubercles. Ventral side flat with m a n y tubefeet. Colour Is quite variable. Typically d a r k yellow with irregular brown p a t c h e s . Some specimens are almost white or greenish. The tubefeet are pink in colour. Occurs on t u r t l e g r a s s b e d s , on sediment or sllty s a n d bottoms to a depth of 30 m. Aver-age density a b o u t 50 individuals per h e c t a r e . Massive forms occur in deeper
waters in the A n d a m a n s . This species h a s medium to low commercial value. One kg of processe^d material costs U.S. $ 6.00 to 7.00. Processed like teatflsh b u t should be h a n d l e d with great care b e c a u s e its bodywall t e n d s to fall a p a r t after harvesting a n d during boiling.
Distribution: This is also a widely distributed species a n d is known from Mascarene Islands, East Africa, Madagascar, Red Sea, S o u t h E a s t e r n Arabia, Persian Gulf, Maldives, Lakshadweep, Sri Lanka, Gulf of Mannar, A n d a m a n and Nicobar Islands, E a s t Indies, North Australia, Philippines. China a n d S o u t h e r n J a p a n a n d S o u t h Pacific Islands.
Anatomy
Not m u c h information is available on the a n a t o m y of the Indian sea cu-c u m b e r s . Mary Bcu-cii (1978,1980) published on the anatomy a n d histology of Holothuria scabra which is the most commercially i m p o r t a n t species in the world. J a m e s (1967,1968) gave the gross a n a t o m y of t h e sea c u c u m b e r s Phyllophorus (Phyllophorella) parvipedes and Stolus buccalis respectively. Rao (1968) published the a n a t o m y of the sea c u c u m b e r Psammothuria ganapati found in the interstitial s a n d s of V i s a k h a p a t n a m . Mary Bai a n d R a m a n a t h a n ( 1 9 7 7 ) h a v e p u b l i s h e d t h e a n a t o m y of t h e h o l o t h u r i a n Holothuria (Semperothuria) cinrescens collected from the Kanyakumari coast. Mary Bai (1971) studied the regeneration of the sea c u c u m b e r Holothuria scabra.
Biology
The biology of Holothuria scabra h a s been worked out by the Central Marine Fisheries Research I n s t i t u t e . It is known to r e a c h a m a x i m u m length of 400 m m . It breeds twice in a year In the Gulf of Mannar. The first spawn-ing peak is from March to May and t h e second d u r i n g November to December. Size a t first m a t u r i t y for females is estimated at 2 1 3 mm and for males it is 210 mm. The fecundity is estimated at 10 l a k h s . The longevity is e s t i m a t e d a t ten years. At the end of first, second, third, fourth and fifth years it r e a c h e s a length of 136 mm, 2 2 5 mm 284 mm, 322 mm, and 3 4 8 mm respectively. B a s k a r (1994) published some information on the biology of Holothuria scabra. Fish (1967) p u b l i s h e d a n excellent a c c o u n t on the biology of Cucumaria elongata from England which should serve as a model for o t h e r s . B a k u s (1973) gave some Information on the biology of tropical sea c u c u m b e r s . Conand (1990) gave very valuable information on the biology of some commercially impor-t a n impor-t sea c u c u m b e r s .
Marine Fisheries Research and Management Ecology
Until the advent of the m a s k a n d snorkel and the SCUBA diving, very little information w a s available on the ecology a n d h a b i t s of t h e sea c u c u m -b e r s . Most of the p a p e r s dealt only with the occurrence of the various species. N a g a b h u s h a n a m and Rao (1972) published an ecological survey of the ma-rine fauna of the Minicoy Atoll in the Lakshadweep. They dealt with the ecol-ogy of 16 species of sea c u c u m b e r s . Narasimham et al. (1984) estimated the catch of 2 2 7 0 t o n n e s of sea c u c u m b e r Acaudina molpadioides from Kakinada Bay with a range in length from 2 5 to 160 mm. From their report it is seen to be a b u n d a n t where salinity is more. The p r e s e n t a u t h o r h a s also collected A. molpadioides from E n n o r e b a c k w a t e r s . J a m e s (1978b) collected a n a p o d o u s sea c u c u m b e r Anapta gracilis from Krishna e s t u a r y a t Machilipatnam. In the above cases the salinity in the e s t u a r y a n d backwater was high j u s t a s in sea. J a m e s (1982, 1994) wrote on the ecology and h a b i t s of nearly 50 species of sea c u c u m b e r s chiefly from the Gulf of M a n n a r and Palk Bay, the A n d a m a n a n d Nlcobar Islands a n d t h e Lakshadweep.
Animal associations
Sea c u c u m b e r s show interesting association with other animals, the clas-sic example being t h a t of Carapid fishes with sea c u c u m b e r s . Chopra (1932), J o n e s and Mahadevan (1966) recorded the association of Pea crab Pinnotheres deccanensis with the sea c u c u m b e r Holothuria scabra. Another species of crab Lissocarcinus orbicularis is found to live in association among the tentacles of sea c u c u m b e r Actinopyga mauritiana at Port Blair in the A n d a m a n s . Some-times even two or three specimens are found to live on a single specimen. The t e n t a c u l a r collar is deep like a cup in which the tentacles are s i t u a t e d . This offers excellent protection for the c r a b s . The c r a b s were never seen outside a n d they come out only when the sea c u c u m b e r is killed. The crab is brown with white p a t c h e s a n d it Is well camouflaged on the species of sea c u c u m b e r which is brown with white p a t c h e s . Both males and females were collected. Mukherji(1932) gave a n account of the fishes associated with sea c u c u m b e r s from the A n d a m a n s . Arnold(1953) p r e s e n t e d some observations on the h a b i t s of Carapid fishes. J a m e s (1995) published detailed observations on associa-tion of t h e fish Encheliophis (Jordanicus) gracilis from t h e s e a c u c u m b e r Holothuria arenicola and a n o t h e r species of fish E. vermicularis from Port Blair. J o n e s a n d K u m a r a n (1980) h a v e r e p o r t e d two C a r a p i d fishes Carapus
parvipinnis and C. homei from the sea c u c u m b e r Bohadschia marmorata. Bakus (1973) a l s o m e n t i o n e d a b o u t t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n . J a m e s (1978) r e p o r t e d Pinnotheres s p . from t h e sea c u c u m b e r Pseudocolochirus violaceus from Mandapam. Ganapati and Radhakrlshna (1963) recorded a Hesionid polychaete from the sea c u c u m b e r Molpadia s p . (= Acaudina molpadioides) a s an in-s t a n c e of Inquiliniin-sm from Kaklnada Bay. Nayar a n d Mahadevan (1965) re-ported Synaptula striata from the sponge Petrosia s p .
Parasites
Being somewhat sluggish the sea c u c u m b e r s are subjected to the a t t a c k of a n u m b e r of p a r a s i t e s . J o n e s and J a m e s (1971) have p u b l i s h e d a n a c c o u n t of a n i n t e r n a l gastropod p a r a s i t e belonging to the family Stillferidae from the cloacal c h a m b e r of sea c u c u m b e r Holothuria atra. Over 1300 s p e c i m e n s of H. atra r a n g i n g in l e n g t h from 80 to 3 5 0 m m were e x a m i n e d for I n t e r n a l commensals and parasites. Of these 8 were found to h a r b o u r gastropods which should be referred to the g e n u s Megademus according to Warren (1983). Very rarely H. scabra have gall formation on the body. When the body wall of s u c h specimens Is cut o])en a gastropod Prostilijersp. is found deeply embedded in the skin. The p r e s e n c e of the gastropod is Indicated by the apex of the shell which slightly projects out. When touched It withdraws into the gall. Though t h o u s a n d s of H. scabrawere examined during the last 30 years, only on a few occasions were s u c h galls noticed. Normally the bodywall of H. scabra is 10 to 15 mm in t h i c k n e s s . As a r e s u l t of infestation t h e skin becomes very thick d u e to gall formallon. The p a r a s i t e is firmly e n t r e n c h e d in the bodywall. Prostilf/erls also known from the sea c u c u m b e r Bohadschia argus (Dr. A n d e r s Warren: personal communication). Though h u n d r e d s of B. argus were exam-ined a t Lakshadweep no gastropod was found in this species, t h e r e .
Distribution and zoogeography
The s t u d y of zoogeography of sea c u c u m b e r s owing to their relatively s e d e n t a r y life, their aversion to fresh or even b r a c k i s h water, t h e brevity of the larval life a n d usually small bathymetrical range is Interesting. Bell (1887) wrote on the zoogeography of echlnoderms. J a m e s (1971) mentioned the dis-tributional p a t t e r n of the echlnoderms of the Indian Ocean. Rao (1980) de-scribed the zoogeography of the interstitial forms like Trochodota havelockensis a n d Leptosynapta s p . from the A n d a m a n s . J a m e s (1986) p u b l i s h e d a detailed p a p e r on the zoogeography of the shallow water echlnoderms of the Indian
Marine Fisheries Research and Management
s e a s . He noted t h a t despite the close proximity of India to Sri Lanka there is marked difference in the species composition of the echlnoderms along the respective coasts. This distributional p a t t e r n is r a t h e r difficult to explain since most of the sea c u c u m b e r s have a wide range of distribution In t h e Indo-Pacific region. This difference in distribution could be due to the role played by the c u r r e n t s and is indicative of the presence of a b a r r i e r which does not favour the movements of sea c u c u m b e r s from Sri Lanka to the Indian side. Another important factor is the 'Area effect' referred to by Price (1982). The Sri Lankan coast is far more extensive t h a n the coastline of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay on the Indian side. Therefore a corresponding increase in spe-cies diversity Is a p p a r e n t .
B i o t o z i c i t y
One of the defensive m e c h a n i s m s for the sea c u c u m b e r s Is the presence of toxins in the body to ward off p r e d a t o r s from attacking them and also the fouling organisms from settling on them. These toxins have anli-lumorous, a n t i - c a n c e r o u s and anti-fertility properties. When H. atra is h a n d l e d in the live condition a red-coloured material comes out. This is the toxin known as h o l o t h u r i n . J a m e s (1986b) conducted experiments u s i n g this toxin at Port Blair and at Mandapam to eradicate u n d e s i r a b l e organisms from the farms. Rao et al. (1985a, 1985b) gave a detailed a c c o u n t of the toxicity of H. spinifera H. scabra. H. atra a n d B.marmorata. Holothuria atra and B.marmorata exhib-ited a high degree of toxicity to fish flngerlings and mice and also showed strong action on rabbit erythrocytes. Much work r e m a i n s to be done in this line from India.
Processing
In the phylum Echlnodermta only the ripe gonads of some species of sea u r c h i n s a n d processed bodywalls of some species of sea c u c u m b e r are of eco-nomic importance. Processed sea c u c u m b e r s are a delicacy for the Chinese. Stichopus Japonicus Is consumed in the raw condition by the J a p a n e s e and the Koreans. Sea c u c u m b e r processing was Introduced by the Chinese more t h a n one t h o u s a n d years back into India. In olden days pearls a n d processed sea c u c u m b e r s were s e n t from India In exchange for silk a n d porcelain. The processed material or beche-de-mer is actually t h e boiled a n d dried skin. The processing chiefly consists of three s t e p s viz., degutting, boiling a n d drying. In some species like H. scabra, H. spinifera and B.marmorata where there is
a n excess of spicules in the bodywall, they have to be buried after boiling, In wet s a n d n e a r the shore so t h a t the bacteria in the s a n d can act on the outer layer of the skin to make it soft for easy removal of spicules during washing.
Collection of sea cucumbers
Sea c u c u m b e r s for processing are chiefly collected by skin diving. The divers go in the morning In sail boats a n d r e t u r n with the catch in the after-noon. They u s e a l u m i n i u m plates for the feet in the place of flippers. In some places like M a n d a p a m , the entire material for processing comes from trawl-ers. Some material also comes from Thallu Madi. Fortunately collection by SCUBA for sea c u c u m b e r s is not done in India.
Handling of sea cucumbers
Sea c u c u m b e r s , being soft-bodied a n i m a l s have to be h a n d l e d with care after collection since the value of the p r o d u c t d e p e n d s on the s h a p e . They should not be exposed to the s u n after collection since the top surface dries u p and peels off. Species of Stichopus should never be exposed to air for long since the bodywall becomes gelatinous rendering them unfit for processing.
First Cleaning
The sea c u c u m b e r s are cleaned in seawater to remove dried slime, s a n d and other e x t r a n e o u s particles a n d left-over gut and other entrails. While cleaning it is desirable to squeeze the sea c u c u m b e r s to remove the water t h a t the animal would have consumed d u r i n g storage.
Degutting
For species like Holothuria scabra, H. spinifera a n d B.marmorata a slit of 20 to 30 mm is made at the posterior end with a s h a r p knife. Immediately the i n t e s t i n e s , g o n a d s a n d r e s p i r a t o r y t r e e s spill o u t of the slit. Iri c a s e of Holothuria atra when it is very long It is cut at both the ends to remove all the Internal o r g a n s . For species of Actinopyg a no degutting is necessary. During boiling all the internal organs come out. In case of Holothuria nobilis where the skin is very thick, a cut is made on the dorsal side in the middle leaving 30 mm at each end. The internal organs still left In the body are removed a n d cleaned in seawater. In case of Thelenota ananas the slit is m a d e on the ventral side leaving 30 mm on each side.
Marine Flgheriw Research and Management
Boiling
Boiling Is a very important step in processing the sea c u c u m b e r s since the quality of the final p r o d u c t d e p e n d s on the s h a p e of the vessels u s e d and the stirring done d u r i n g the boiling. Sea c u c u m b e r s are always boiled in seawater for a b o u t an h o u r depending on the size of the specimens. A distinct cooked odour comes o u t at the end of boiling. The material can also be s u b -jected to bouncing test to find out whether the boiling is sufficient or not.
When the boiled sea c u c u m b e r s are dropped on h a r d surface like a rock they b o u n c e like a r u b b e r ball. Usually boiling is done in 2 0 0 1 oil d r u m s . They are sealed at both the ends and cut on the horizontal plane. Since it is made of iron it easily gets r u s t e d a n d also this type of oil d r u m does not allow m u c h stirring. During boiling the material should be allowed to roll due to stirring. For best r e s u l t s the material should be boiled in flat s a u c e r - s h a p e d cast Iron p a n s which will allow rolling during stirring.
Burying
As stated earlier burying is done only for some species where too m u c h of calcareous material is p r e s e n t in the outer layer of the skin. Usually boiling is over in the evening. First a pit is dug n e a r the s h o r e where the s a n d is moist. A g u n n y bag lining is given in the pit and the boiled material is p u t into t h a t . Then the material is covered by a g u n n y bag and finally covered by moist s a n d . The bacteria in the s a n d act on the outer layer of the skin loosens all the calcareous material. The boiled material is kept for 15 to 18 h o u r s for the bacteria to act on the outer layer of the skin. If the material Is kept inside the pit for too long the Inner flesh will be eaten away by the bacteria leaving ugly pits on the surface rendering the material u s e l e s s for export.
Second Cleaning
After 15 to 18 h o u r s t h e s e a c u c u m b e r s are removed from the pit a n d p u t into palm-fibre woven b a s k e t s . By now the bacteria would have acted on the outer layer of the bodywall. This m a k e s the bodywall soft. Then the mate-rial is thoroughly scrubbed and cleaned with fresh seawater. Matemate-rial which is free from white material sticking to It Is once again boiled in seawater for five m i n u t e s to kill the bacteria sticking to them.
Drying
Drying is one of the most i m p o r t a n t operations in the processing of sea c u c u m b e r s (PI.II, C & D). S u n drying is the best when compared to smoke drying. When the s u n is good it takes five or six days for complete drying. They should not be bone dried. Usually 8 to 10% m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t is advis-able. The material s h o u l d never be p u t directly on s a n d or on r o c k s since s a n d particles and other dirt will stick to the material. Beche-de-mer is a hygroscopic material. During rainy s e a s o n it a b s o r b s water. Therefore t h e material h a s to be packed in polythene s h e e t s .
Conservation and management
Since sea c u c u m b e r s do not offer any r e s i s t a n c e a t the time of c a p t u r e a n d also do not make any a t t e m p t s to escape from the captors they are quickly overexplolted from any p a r t i c u l a r region. Sea c u c u m b e r processing was In-troduced in the Maldives in 1986 with a modest h a r v e s t of 2 t o n n e s . This figure shot u p to 800 tonnes In 1990 as a result of overexploitation. Added to the overexploitation problem, the sea c u c u m b e r s are slow growing a n i m a l s . They lake two years to reach full length. Despite these d r a w b a c k s , the fishery Is able to survive a n d s u s t a i n , though on a low scale, due to their high fecun-dity, cryptic h a b i t s , low value which will not allow all the s p e c i m e n s to be collected. Fortunately, the spawning populations are beyond the r e a c h of the ordinary divers a n d SCUBA is also not u s e d in t h e collection of s e a c u c u m -bers in this country. Several countries have b a n n e d the u s e of SCUBA.
J a m e s a n d J a m e s (1994b, 1994c) wrote on the conservation and m a n -agement of sea c u c u m b e r s . In 1995, the Lakshadweep Administration i s s u e d
10 conservation methods based on the report of the a u t h o r to the Lakshadweep Administration. Some of the conservation and m a n a g e m e n t m e t h o d s are listed below.
Size regulation: Size regulation is the most i m p o r t a n t m e a s u r e for con-servation. Sea c u c u m b e r s h r i n k by 42% on processing (Baskar a n d J a m e s ,
1989). Export of Beche-de-mer samples below 75 mm length was b a n n e d by the Government of India in 1982. This covers a n i m a l s 250 mm in the live condition. This b a n is still in force. The size at first m a t u r i t y in the case of H. scabra is estimated a t 230 mm (Baskar, 1994). Therefore it is advisable to r e t u r n all t h e specimens below 260 m m to the sea. Sea c u c u m b e r s live o u t of
Marine Flsherieg Research and Management
water for a long time. Therefore undersized sea c u c u m b e r s collected can be r e t u r n e d to the sea, for further growth. It is better to leave them on the beds from where they were collected r a t h e r t h a n bringing t h e m to the shore a n d throwing them into the sea. While there is b a n on the export of material less t h a n 75 m m in l e n g t h , t h e r e is n o b a n on t h e c a t c h i n g of j u v e n i l e s . Lakshadweep Administration b a n n e d the collection of H.nobilis below 150 mm length.
Closed seasons: Sea c u c u m b e r s should not be fished r o u n d the year for processing. There should be closed s e a s o n s during the breeding period allow-ing the animals to spawn. Holothuria scabra breeds in the Gulf of Mannar twice. There is a major peak during March to April and minor peak during November to December. Unfortunately, the peak season for diving in the Gulf of M a n n a r is during J a n u a r y to April since the sea is calm and visibility is good.
Extension of the area oj collection: In the seas a r o u n d India sea cucum-bers of commercial value are found in the Gulf of M a n n a r and Palk Bay, the A n d a m a n and Nlcobar Islands a n d the Lakshadweep. I n t e n s e fishing and processing is going on only in the Gulf of M a n n a r and Palk Bay. Even in this region, only at p a r t i c u l a r places the diving is taking place. Between Kilakarai a n d s o u t h of Tutlcorin for a s t r e t c h of over 100 km there is no diving for sea c u c u m b e r s . Unfortunately, collection a n d processing of sea c u c u m b e r s is b a n n e d in the Andaman a n d Nlcobar I s l a n d s . The processors should b e al-lowed to collect this valuable resource subject to some conservation meas-u r e s . In the Lakshadweep also, there was no processing till 1994. It was overexploited by some party from Bombay in 1994 leading to the destruction of the n a t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s . From 1995 onwards, the fishery is being regu-lated b a s e d on the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s suggested by the a u t h o r . The Gulf of Kutch and s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s also s h o u l d be surveyed for t h i s r e s o u r c e . Holothuria scabra h a s been reported from the Malwan coast by Parulekar (1981). This record needs confirmation.
Processing of other species: Surprisingly, till 1989 only three species viz.. Holothuria scabra, H. spinifera and Bohadschia marmorata were proc-essed from the Gulf of M a n n a r and Palk Bay, even though other valuable species were available. The Chinese when they introduced the processing nearly one t h o u s a n d years ago, confined It to these three species only. Of these, ffolothuria scabra formed 90% p u t t i n g lot of p r e s s u r e on this species. In 1989,
A. echinites, in 1990, A. miliaris a n d in 1 9 9 1 , Holothuria a t r a were introduced for processing from the Gulf of Mannar. From 1994 onwards, Holothuria nobilis, Thelenota ananas, Actinopyga mauritiana a n d Stichopus chloronotus a r e processed from the Lakshadweep. The processing of other species release p r e s -s u r e on t h e target -specie-s.
Need for biological information to regulate exploitation: For t h e m a n a g e -ment of the sea c u c u m b e r fishery, information on catch and effort, weight of the specimens (correct length m e a s u r e m e n t s c a n n o t be t a k e n in case of sea c u c u m b e r s b e c a u s e of c o n s t a n t expansion a n d contraction), breeding s e a s o n and fecundity h a s to be recorded for each species. E s t i m a t e s on the age a n d growth have to be m a d e . Even though several species form the fishery in several p a r t s of the world, the above Information Is sadly missing. In the absence of the above d a t a It is not possible to estimate the s t o c k s a n d calcu-late the m a x i m u m s u s t a i n a b l e yield. B a s k a r (1994) gave some details on the biology of Holothuria scabra from the Gulf of M a n n a r . Kandan (unpublllshed) collected information on t h e biology Holothuria nobilis a n d Actinopyga mauritiana from the MInlcoy Island in the Lakshadweep. Conand (1998) gave some information on the biology of commercially Important species from the New Caledonia. Clearly more information n e e d s to be collected on a continu-ing b a s i s for all the species t h a t are now processed from India a n d elsewhere.
Closed areas It Is well known t h a t certain a r e a s are breeding g r o u n d s for t h e sea c u c u m b e r s a n d also in certain a r e a s juveniles are found in large n u m b e r s . Collection In s u c h a r e a s should be totally b a n n e d . Normally In-shore a r e a s have more juveniles t h a n offIn-shore a r e a s . Also, in the slightly less saline a r e a s more juveniles are found since they are able to tolerate wide range in salinity. In Port Blair (Andamans) In 1977 a bed of juveniles of H. scabra w a s located near the S o u t h Point. Such a r e a s should be protected from collectors.
Development of organized Beche-de-mer industry: Unfortunately t h e beche-de-mer Industry Is not an organized Industry. Beche-de-mer processing factories can be ojjcned on the Gulf of M a n n a r a n d Palk Bay. Hornell (1917) mentioned about a Government Factory In Tirupalakudi with economics worked out. He suggested t h a t a n o t h e r factory can be opened at Vedalal. In Sri Lanka, a beche-de-mer factory w a s opened at M a n n a r in 1974 u n d e r a fisheries cooperative society. P a r a m a n a n d a n (1974) h a s given the a d v a n t a g e s of p r o c e s s -ing beche-de-mer in a factory and h a s also given the cost a n a l y s i s . He h a s
Marine Fisheries Research and Management
also clearly shown t h a t In order to r u n the factory successfully they have to process a t l e a s t 1.2 t o n n e s beche-de-mer per m o n t h . The processing by se-lected and trained staff to e n s u r e uniformity, hygienic conditions, greater care for better s t a n d a r d and quicker production are primary requisites for the s u c -cess of the i n d u s t r y . Bad weather conditions will not affect pro-cessing, indi-vidual suppliers of raw material will find c o n t i n u o u s employment. In this, a society can afford to expand and Improve the quality of beche-de-mer. It is worth making an effort u n d e r the co-operative sector by opening one or two factories along the Gulf of M a n n a r and Palk Bay. The beche-de-mer Industry can t h u s be managed in a better and organised m a n n e r .
Hatchery and culture
The J a p a n e s e are p i o n e e r s in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of seed of Stichopus Japonicus. Inaba (1937) Induced them to spawn by t h e r m a l stimulation.
Re-cently seed of Actinopyga echinites was produced by Chen and Chlan (1990) from Taiwan. Although the sea c u c u m b e r Holothuria scabra yields high grade beche-de-mer and forms a fishery in several p a r t s of the world, it is s u r p r i s i n g t h a t the seed of this valuable species w a s not produced earlier. J a m e s et al. (1989) produced the seed of H. scabra for the first time at the TRC of CMFRI, Tutlcorln by inducing them to spawn by thermal stimulation. Since t h e n , the seed of t h i s species h a s been produced on a n u m b e r of occasions. J a m e s (1993, 1994a, 1994b, 1996a. 1996b, 1997), J a m e s a n d J a m e s (1993), J a m e s et al. (1994a, 1994b) gave details of the h a t c h e r y and culture of the sea cu-c u m b e r Holothuria scu-cabra.
J a m e s (1996c) described the farming m e t h o d s . J a m e s et al. (1996) gave the r e s u l t s of rearing of the Juveniles of H. scabra produced in the hatchery.
Acknowledgement
1 t h a n k Dr. M. Devaraj, Director, Central Marine Fisheries Research In-s t i t u t e , Kochi-14 for hiIn-s kind intereIn-st and encouragement.
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