i UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE MADRID
Facultad De Filosofía Y Letras
Instituto Universitario De Estudios De La Mujer
Programa de Doctorado en Estudios Interdisciplinares de Género Tesis Doctoral
Presentada Por Amira Salah Elsharkawy Bajo La dirección De Prof. Dra. Dª. Elena Beltran
2020
iii
« The woman'' was perceived as essentially, or exclusively, a sexual being, unlike ''the man'' who was only partly understood in terms of his sexuality. Women were held to possess a more powerful sexual drive than men, posing a threat to society because of the chaos or fitna they could unleash. It was popularly believed that the mere proximity of a woman to a man would lead to sexual relations. To make matters still more fraught, women's sexual purity was linked to the honor of men and the family, while men's sexual purity was not linked to their own honor nor to that of their women and family. »
Margot Badran
Badran, M. (1996). p5
iv
FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION: BETWEEN RELIGION AND TRADITION
Table of Contents
Abstract………. vi
Abstract (In Spanish) ……….………. vii
Acknowledgments……….………… viii
Abbreviations and Acronyms………….………….……… ix
Religious Terms in the Thesis ……….…...………. x
Introduction ………. 11
Chapter 1: Roots of Egyptian feminism of the 19th and 20th century...……… 20
1.1 Introduction ………. 20
1.2 Modernization and intellectual enhancement during the 19th century………. 24
1.3 Egyptian Male reformers and the emancipation of women………... 33
1.4 The Emergence of the Egyptian feminist conscience………... 44
1.5 The 1919 Revolution and Women’s Participation in the Political Life. …….. 53
1.6 The Creation of the Egyptian Feminist Union in 1923………. 58
Chapter 2: Women’s Status starting from 1952 till now……….……. 64
2.1. Introduction………. 63
2.2. Egyptian feminism between two revolutions……….……… 66
2.2.1. A turning point for feminism ………. 65
2.2.2. Legal attempts to improve the situation of women since the 1970…… 70
v
2.2.3. A period of setbacks in Women’s historical gains………. 80
2.3. Towards addressing violence in the new era of the state………. 86
2.3.1. Violence as a broad term ………. 86
2.3.2. Violence in the Egyptian Society………. 92
2.3.3. The role of the media ………. 96
2.3.4. International recognition of violence against women as a problem…. 99
Chapter 3: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C). 107
3.1. Introduction………... 107
3.2.FGM: Terminology and Classification ………. 109
3.3.Negative Physical, Psychological and Sexual Effects of FGM …………... 117
3.4. Women suffering FGM on Gender basis………. 121
3.5.International and National Recognition of FGM as Violence………... 131
3.6.Legislation on FGM in Egypt………. 134
Chapter 4: Is FGM an Outcome of Islam? 145
4.1. Introduction………... 145
4.2. Islam a guidance for Muslima: An overview………. 149
4.2.1 Body, Marriage and Family in Islam. ………...……... 152
2.2.2 Equality in Islam: Each responsible for own deeds………. 158
4.3. Female genital mutilation a mandatory religious act or imposed on religion 163 4.3.1 A mandatory practice in the name of religion………. 165
4.3.2 A custom with no religious basis………. 167
Conclusions ………... 175
References………. 185
vi ABSTRACT
The problem of female genital mutilation by which the external genitalia of girls are cut has always been an endemic problem in Egypt despite the lack of data. Existing studies reveal that such practice existed in Egypt since ancient times. However, feminist calls to combat it began since the 1990s. This fact led to a public debate until its abolition in 2008.
With the January 2011 Revolution, Egyptian society went into shock, when calls were made to revive the illegal practice of female genital mutilation. With the rise of patriarchal Islamists to power, efforts were made to revive the practice of female circumcision that had been outlawed in Egypt since 2008.
Female genital mutilation has always been painted as a religious act, the fact that helped to increase the sense against Islam on the issue of women's rights. Therefore, in this thesis I advance through a hypothesis: female genital mutilation is not related to Islam, but the misinterpretation of religion by patriarchal societies is responsible for women being exposed to such practice. Therefore, the objective of investigating FGM is primarily to address fundamental issues related to practice and try to refute misconceptions about female genital mutilation and Islam. After investigating the rights granted to women by Islam by reading the verses of the Qur'an and religious opinions on various topics, including the issue of female genital mutilation, I came up with a result that is the subordination of women and their position meant that patriarchal thoughts are socially constructed
vii RESUMEN
El problema de la mutilación genital femenina por la que se cortan los genitales externos de las niñas siempre ha sido un problema endémico en Egipto a pesar de la escasez de datos. Los estudios existentes revelan que tal practica existía en Egipto desde la antigüedad. Sin embargo, los llamamientos feministas para combatirla comenzaron desde los anos noventa. Este hecho originó un debate público hasta conseguir su abolición en 2008. Con la Revolución de enero de 2011, la sociedad egipcia entró en estado de shock, cuando se hicieron llamamientos para revivir la práctica ilegal de la mutilación genital femenina. Con el ascenso de los islamistas patriarcales al poder, se hicieron esfuerzos para revivir la práctica de la circuncisión femenina que había sido ilegalizada en Egipto desde 2008.
La mutilación genital femenina siempre ha sido pintada como un acto religioso el hecho que ayudó a aumentar el sentido contra el islam en el tema de los derechos de las mujeres. Por eso, en esta tesis avanzo a través de una hipótesis: la mutilación genital femenina no está relacionada con el islam, sino que la interpretación errónea de la religión por parte de las sociedades patriarcales es responsable de que las mujeres estén expuestas a tal practica. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de investigar la MGF es principalmente abordar cuestiones fundamentales relacionadas con la práctica y tratar de refutar los conceptos erróneos sobre la mutilación genital femenina y el islam. Después de investigar los derechos otorgados a las mujeres por el islam al leer los versos del Corán y las opiniones religiosas sobre varios temas, incluido el tema de la mutilación genital femenina, salí con un resultado que es la subordinación de las mujeres y su posición significaba que los pensamientos patriarcales se construyen socialmente
viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
With the completion of this thesis the pleasurable moment has come to remember the people who encouraged me to complete this research and to offer them my gratitude.
I start with the professors of the Women’s Institute of the Autonomous University of Madrid, and in particular Professor Yolanda Guerrero, for the continuous help and support provided for this study. The guidance and advice I received from my professors during my Masters’ degree and my PhD research are deeply appreciated. I am deeply grateful to Professor Elena Beltran, Professor Cristina Sanchez, and Professor Silvina Alvarez whose comments and edits greatly improved this paper. Also, I would like to express my gratitude to all the people who, directly or indirectly, have contributed to the elaboration of this thesis.
To my mother and father: There is no one word that can describe how much I appreciate your continuous efforts to raise me without any type of discrimination for being a girl. You were always by my side in my own decisions and always gave me the courage to move on with my educational journeys. To Yassin: Your continuous wishes and prayers that I finish my PhD as soon as possible are truly appreciated. To my sisters and my friends: Thank you for your support, help and encouragement towards finishing my PhD thesis. I am also grateful to the Egyptian women whom I met in Cairo and allowed me to discuss with them in informal conversations their personal experiences with female genital mutilation. It is my hope that this study will uncover some of the erroneous convictions regarding women.
ix ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women
CRC The Convention of the Rights of the Child
CSW Commission on the Status of Women
EDHS Egyptian Demographic and Health Survey
FC Female circumcision
FGM/C Female genital mutilation or cutting
ICPD International Conference on Population and Development
IMAGES International Men and Gender Equality Survey
NGO Non-governmental organization
NCW National Council for Women
MB Muslim Brotherhood
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
WHO World Health Organization
x RELIGIOUS TERMS IN THE THESIS
Ayah. Is the Arabic word “verse” which refer to one statement of various statements which make up a chapter “Surah” in the Quran. Each Ayah of the Quran is marked by a number. When there is a reference to more than one Ayah, they are referred to by Ayat
Al-Azhar Al-Azhar is an Islamic institution which is the main responsible for religious studies and Islamic affairs inside Egypt. The Grand Sheikh of Al-Azhar is appointed by law from among the council of senior
scholars and is considered independent from the state authorities Fatwa. A fatwa (fatawa in plural) in religion is an Islamic pronouncement on a certain issue. It has to be made by an expert or a specialist in religious law when uncertainty takes place on a certain issue in the Islamic jurisprudence. The religious foundation in Egypt authorized in issuing fatwas to the masses is Dar al-Ifta al Misriyyah and the person
authorized for this task holds the title of the Grand Mufti Figh Understanding the Islamic jurisprudence
Hadith. Plural ahadiths refers to all what is said by prophet Muhammed
Haram It refers to any sinful action which is prohibited in the Muslim religion.
Hijab A head scarf or veil covering the hair. In Islam Muslim women are requested to cover their hair and body leaving hands and face uncovered.
This request has been mentioned in the Qura’n in Surah An-Nur and Surah Al-Ahzab of the Quran.
Ijmae It means consensus of Islamic scholars on a religious matter
xi khul It refers to the divorce initiated by a wife by a judicial decree with returning to her husband the amount of the dowry or what she received from her husband.
Mufti Mufti or Grand Mufti occupies the highest religious authority in Egypt and he is the one responsible of issuing fatwas on religious matters.
Prophet The prophet is the Messenger of God sent to humanity for leading them to the good path in life according to God’s instructions. In the Islamic
religion, Prophet Muhammed is believed to be the last messenger of God who was responsible of spreading the message of Islam
Quran Quran is the sacred book of the Islamic religion. It was revealed by God
on the tongue of angel Jibr to the prophet of Islam Muhammed and it was carefully memorized by Muhammed’s companions. After the death of the prophet, to save the Qur'an from being forgotten, the Qur'an was collected in one book (Mushaf) by the order of the closest companion of the prophet Abu Bakr al-Siddiq. Reading the Qur'an and memorizing it are between the acts of worship by the Muslim towards his creator Allah since everything in the life of a Muslim is linked to this book.
Ramadan Ramadan is a period of 30 days known as the holy month of Ramadan during which Muslims fast from eating or drinking starting from sunrise till sunset.Women are exempted from fastening during their menstrual period of this month as well as from performing their prayers
Schools of fiqh Schools of Islamic thought or Islamic jurisprudence. Each of these schools is called Mazhab which refers to a group of religious opinions which dectate a certain rule for each issue. The accepted schools of fiqh are; Maliki, Hanafi, Shafii, and Hanbali.
xii Shafi`i Islamic law which include all laws, rules, regulations derived from The main sources of Islam; Quran and Sunna in order to achieve people's interests and happiness in matters of worship, morality and dealing with others in all fields and systems of life.
Sheikh A tittle given to an Islamic cleric. Also, it is used for the highest official in Al-Azhar who is titled Sheikh of al-Azhar
Surah Quran consists of 114 Surah (chapter) each is given a name.
Sunna. The Sunnah is the second source of legislation in Islam. It includes all information about the prophet’s moral, ethical qualities, including daily details of his relationship with his companions, his relationship with his wives, and his attitudes with other people. It has been transmitted from generations to generations.
Tafsir. It is a term which refers to the explications of the Quran.
Waed It is a custom prevailed in pre-Islamic period through which girls were buried alive just after birth
11 INTRODUCCIÓN
La historia de la humanidad está llena de múltiples formas de violencia contra las mujeres, tanto en la vida privada como en la pública. Es un fenómeno universal que afecta a las mujeres de todo el mundo independientemente de su credo, educación, edad o situación económica. La violencia contra la mujer existe desde que el hombre está en la tierra y este hecho ha ido pasando por las diferentes etapas de la historia hasta llegar finalmente a nuestro tiempo. Si analizamos el problema a través del prisma de género, una de las características distintivas de la violencia dirigida hacia las mujeres es que hay un objetivo específico: controlar a las mujeres y someterlas al poder masculino. ¿Con qué finalidad? Para proteger y mantener un sistema de poder en la vejez, que la teoría feminista define como patriarcal. Según esta teoría, el concepto de Patriarcado organiza la relación binaria hombre / mujer y transforma las diferencias biológicas entre ellos en desigualdades sociales establecidas donde se atribuyen ciertos valores a cada sexo. La violencia se produce a partir de este sistema para mantener el poder masculino.
En ciertas sociedades donde las relaciones humanas se rigen severamente por normas patriarcales, la violencia a menudo se disfraza de costumbres y prácticas sociales que se transmiten a través de la cultura y luego afectan a la mujer. A menudo estos hechos son defendidos por estereotipos comunes y frecuentes conceptos erróneos culturales sobre las mujeres. Entre ellos, la idea de que una mujer no es totalmente responsable de proteger su honor o virginidad y esto ocupa un lugar primordial. Este concepto está vinculado a una creencia común adoptada por algunos conservadores que describen a las mujeres en general como seres humanos que poseen una enorme pasión sexual que podría conducir al caos moral.
12 Desafortunadamente, están justificados por un discurso religioso por parte de algunos segmentos radicales de la sociedad que usan interpretaciones erróneas de la religión para degradar a las mujeres en contra del alto estatus que el Islam les otorgó. Esto hace que un amplio abanico de mujeres de la sociedad egipcia esté en una situación de inferioridad en la que sufren ciertas formas de violencia tanto en el ámbito privado como en el público como resultado de esos estereotipos.
El problema de la violencia contra las niñas y las mujeres siempre ha sido un problema endémico en Egipto a pesar de la escasez de datos. Los estudios existentes revelan que existían varias prácticas violentas en la antigüedad. Sin embargo, los llamamientos feministas para combatir la violencia comenzaron en el siglo XX y, en, concreto cuando comenzaron a exigir la abolición de ciertas prácticas. Entre ellas, la mutilación genital femenina, por la que se cortan los genitales externos de las niñas. Este hecho originó un debate público hasta conseguir su abolición en 2008. Con la Revolución de enero de 2011, la sociedad egipcia entró en estado de shock, cuando se hicieron llamamientos para revivir la práctica ilegal de la mutilación genital femenina. Con el ascenso de los islamistas patriarcales al poder, se hicieron esfuerzos para revivir la práctica de la circuncisión femenina que había sido ilegalizada en Egipto desde 2008.
Con este objetivo se difundió entre los ciudadanos analfabetos la idea de que las niñas que no estaban circuncidadas carecían de fe religiosa. Se hizo evidente que, a pesar de los esfuerzos realizados para combatir la circuncisión femenina en las últimas décadas, y a pesar del compromiso de Egipto con las convenciones y acuerdos internacionales sobre mujeres que el Estado ratificó, esas llamadas de reactivación de la mutilación genital femenina utilizaron el mismo discurso retórico sobre la circuncisión femenina. Las mujeres vieron en tales llamadas un retroceso frente a las ganancias de todo lo conseguido en las diferentes fases históricas. Sorprendentemente, esas llamadas se hicieron después
13 de varias décadas de lucha para poner fin a tal práctica en un país conocido por su larga historia de feminismo y hogar de la institución islámica más antigua y más grande "al- Azhar" con sus opiniones moderadas sobre el Islam.
La lucha contra la mutilación genital femenina siempre ha estado presente en la batalla de las feministas contra la discriminación de la mujer, aunque se puede argumentar que el caso de la violencia contra las mujeres en períodos de agitación política era una mera distracción de la situación política en curso. Sin embargo, el tema de la violencia contra las mujeres es más profundo que una situación política, siempre estuvo presente en la ideología del extremismo y el patriarcalismo. Siempre se había utilizado contra las mujeres por ejercer el poder masculino. Teniendo en cuenta que el término violencia contra las mujeres abarca una variedad de prácticas y dado que cubrirlas está más allá del alcance de este estudio, por lo tanto, el enfoque principal de esta tesis estará en la mutilación genital femenina, que ha sido un tema polémico en Egipto.
Objetivos
Mi desagrado como mujer musulmana residente en un país extranjero donde es una idea generalizada que todas las prácticas discriminatorias contra la mujer son el resultado del Islam me empujó a investigar la verdad de tal práctica en las fuentes árabes y religiosas. En esta tesis avanzo a través de una hipótesis: la mutilación genital femenina, así como otras prácticas violentas contra las mujeres, no están relacionadas con el Islam, sino que la interpretación errónea de la religión por parte de las sociedades patriarcales es responsable de que las mujeres estén expuestas a la violencia. Lo que me preocupa aquí son dos cosas:
14
• En primer lugar: la mutilación genital femenina siempre ha sido pintada por Occidente como un acto religioso que ayudó a aumentar el sentido contra el Islam en el tema de los derechos de las mujeres.
• En segundo lugar: este hecho siempre ha estado vinculado a la religión en Egipto por una gran parte de la población, lo que resultó fundamental para su difusión en un país donde la religión representa un aspecto muy importante en la vida social, política y económica de las personas.
Ser musulmana me impidió adoptar una visión externa del Islam y aceptar lo que me pareció poco convincente. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de investigar la MGF es principalmente abordar cuestiones fundamentales relacionadas con la práctica. Mi objetivo, por lo tanto, es tratar de refutar los conceptos erróneos sobre la mutilación genital femenina y el Islam a partir de mi creencia y convicción de que el uso de un discurso religioso y el extremismo en el pensamiento sobre las mujeres se mantiene con un ciclo de violencia. Este ciclo no solo afecta a las mujeres en el tema de la MGF, sino que se extiende para afectarlas en todos los demás aspectos de la vida. El uso de la religión a través de interpretaciones erróneas de la misma para justificar las prácticas sociales impuestas a las mujeres de forma estricta en algunas prácticas priva a las mujeres de muchos derechos prescritos por el Islam.
Para examinar el tema de la mutilación genital femenina en Egipto, que es una manifestación de violencia, es crucial comprender la situación de las mujeres dentro de la sociedad egipcia. Conocer el pasado del feminismo egipcio y colocarlo en su contexto histórico es crucial para tener una idea de cómo el desarrollo político, cultural o social configuraron una identidad femenina. Fueron los esfuerzos de las primeras feministas las que desarrollaron un discurso que comenzó con una llamada a la educación de las mujeres
15 y a la abolición de la segregación de género que abrió la puerta en las décadas modernas para que las nuevas generaciones incluyan, en sus demandas feministas, temas tabú como la práctica de la mutilación genital en el discurso público de los siglos XX y XXI.
Metodología
La tesis se divide en cuatro capítulos:
Capítulo 1: proporciona una visión general sobre las ideas innovadoras surgidas dentro de la sociedad egipcia durante el período de la iluminación árabe, durante el cual un despertar intelectual abrió la puerta a la participación de las mujeres en la vida pública durante un tiempo en que las mujeres se mantenían dentro de la sociedad, en la esfera doméstica, lo que en árabe se denominó "harén". Luego, el capítulo proporciona a los lectores una idea de la aparición del feminismo egipcio y muestra cómo las primeras feministas se comprometieron profundamente en la lucha por mejores oportunidades hasta que se convirtieron en una fuerza real detrás de la transformación del estatus inferior de las mujeres durante la última década del siglo XIX y el comienzo del siglo XX. Su conciencia de género nacida de sus propias experiencias personales se había transformado en una ideología feminista a principios del siglo XX. Las mujeres egipcias, por lo tanto, penetraron en la vida pública a través de la enseñanza y la filantropía como dos campos aceptados para su interacción en un espacio público dominado por los hombres. Sin embargo, la situación política del país y el levantamiento de la revolución de 1919, seguida por la exclusión de las mujeres de la participación política, llevaron el activismo de las mujeres a un nuevo camino. Su activismo tomó una forma más organizada y se vincularon con el feminismo internacional. Fueron los esfuerzos de esas primeras feministas lo que garantizó a la generación futura la libertad de movimiento y la inclusión en el dominio público. Intenté a través de este capítulo utilizar el orden cronológico para
16 tratar las transformaciones que tuvieron lugar en Egipto hasta finales del siglo XIX y principios del siglo XX.
Capítulo 2: proporciona una imagen de las transformaciones que tuvieron lugar dentro de la sociedad egipcia y que desempeñaron un papel importante en el cambio de la condición de la mujer desde la segunda mitad del siglo XX hasta la actualidad. Aunque los problemas de las mujeres no fueron la principal preocupación de los actores políticos durante varias décadas, la inclusión de los temas de mujeres y género en la agenda política se intensificó recientemente durante el régimen del presidente Sisi. El estímulo permanente para las mujeres egipcias se reflejó aún más en la reciente remodelación del gabinete de diciembre de 2019, que fue testigo de la asunción de 7 carteras ministeriales por parte de las mujeres. El capítulo dos, por lo tanto, comienza con un período muy crítico durante el cual las ganancias históricas de las mujeres estuvieron en peligro. Tal período nombrado por el término "Primavera Árabe" fue testigo de una agitación política y el ascenso de una fuerza extremista al poder, seguida de la exposición del cuerpo de las mujeres a la violencia. A raíz de la destitución de Mubarak del poder, se celebraron elecciones parlamentarias durante el 2011. Durante las elecciones, los islamistas ganaron la mayoría de los escaños y, en consecuencia, los derechos de las mujeres obtenidos en décadas anteriores fueron atacados. El grupo de los Hermanos Musulmanes tenía como objetivo poner sus intereses por encima de los intereses de otros segmentos de la sociedad.
Las mujeres se estaban convirtiendo en blanco de su violencia; un hecho se cristalizó al eliminar un artículo del proyecto de constitución que criminalizaba la discriminación de género. Dirigieron su ataque hacia la Convención contra todas las formas de discriminación contra la mujer (CEDAW), las enmiendas hechas a las leyes y disposiciones que benefician a las mujeres, y en particular hacia la ilegalización de la mutilación genital femenina (MGF). No solo atacaron la ilegalización de la mutilación
17 genital femenina, sino que también tuvieron como objetivo revivir esta práctica ilegal.
Para esto, lanzaron campañas de propagación y convoy móvil de caridad en mayo de 2012 para llevar a cabo la mutilación genital femenina en pueblos y procedencias de la parte sur de Egipto.
El capítulo también revela que, a pesar de que los temas de violencia y género habían sido descuidados en los estudios académicos y políticos egipcios durante varias décadas, recientemente, estos temas han sido tratados en varios artículos y estudios. El período que comenzó en 2014 representó un período de avance para los derechos de las mujeres en Egipto, ya que el problema de la violencia contra las mujeres se había incluido en la agenda política del nuevo gobierno. Este período comenzó con la adopción de la Constitución de 2014, que favoreció los derechos de las mujeres. Mi objetivo en este capítulo no era centrarme en el discurso de la violencia, sino proporcionar un trasfondo general sobre la violencia que nos permita en el siguiente capítulo examinar en profundidad uno de los tipos de violencia dentro de Egipto; a saber, la práctica de la mutilación genital femenina. Aunque el tema de la violencia contra las mujeres no ocupó los primeros debates en el feminismo occidental o egipcio, sin embargo, el problema de la violencia se incluyó más tarde en la teoría feminista como uno de los principales problemas que afectan a las mujeres y una de las principales razones detrás de su discriminación en sus sociedades.
Capítulo 3: este capítulo analizará una manifestación de violencia, a saber, la MGF. A través del capítulo, me sumergí con entusiasmo en la práctica al presentar el significado, los antecedentes, la clasificación y la medicalización del procedimiento, así como sus consecuencias negativas para la salud. El capítulo también proporciona información sobre la legislación adoptada en Egipto para combatir la práctica durante varios años hasta que la batalla legal sobre la mutilación genital femenina terminó en 2016 con el parlamento
18 egipcio aprobado para aplicar una severa pena a los perpetradores de la mutilación genital femenina. Dado que "Mutilación Genital Femenina" es un término recientemente adoptado por la comunidad internacional para referirse a la severidad de la práctica. La práctica había sido mencionada durante mucho tiempo por el término circuncisión femenina. Entonces, ocasionalmente puedo usar el término circuncisión en particular mientras escribo sobre el período anterior a la adopción del término universal. Luego, el capítulo ilustrará la prevalencia de la práctica dentro de la sociedad egipcia, mostrando cómo se percibe entre las poblaciones y qué hay detrás de esta realidad. Una explicación de las razones que subyacen a la pregunta de por qué las familias aún defienden una práctica que se ha demostrado que es peligrosa. Se han explorado muchas razones en torno a la convicción de la gente común de que la práctica es buena para las niñas, todo lo cual es el resultado de los estereotipos sociales de género que se crearon desde los viejos tiempos. Esos estereotipos abogan por la idea de que las mujeres tienen un sentido muy sexual que pone en peligro su virginidad y su honor. Lo sorprendente de estas nociones es que a menudo son alentadas y defendidas por un discurso religioso por un segmento importante de los jeques de predicadores religiosos radicales. El asunto que me lleva a examinar en el siguiente capítulo la postura religiosa de la mutilación genital femenina para descubrir el objetivo principal de esta tesis, es si la mutilación genital femenina es un mandamiento islámico o no.
Capítulo 4: trata de proporcionar una discusión coherente sobre un tema contencioso: La práctica de la mutilación genital femenina desde un punto de vista religioso. La primera parte del capítulo ofrece a los lectores una breve introducción sobre el Islam para aquellos que no tienen antecedentes islámicos. La introducción también destaca que el Islam viene con reglas y regulaciones para hombres y mujeres y que sus versos incluyen los derechos de las mujeres en muchos aspectos de la vida sin discriminación. A través de mi búsqueda,
19 cité los versos del Corán utilizados por diferentes fuentes para defender la opinión de que el Islam brinda a las mujeres derechos y dignidad. Luego, la segunda parte se centra en las opiniones religiosas sobre la práctica controvertida de la mutilación genital femenina.
Esas opiniones opuestas tanto de los opositores como de los partidarios de la práctica marcaron un largo debate sobre si es exigido por el Islam o impuesto al Islam.
20 Chapter 1
Roots of Egyptian feminism of the 19th and 20th century
1.1 Introduction
After the death of Prophet Muhammed, and with the aim of spreading Islam in other countries, warriors from the Arab Peninsula “had swept out of Arabia” to conquer new areas.1 In 639 Egypt ,whose native inhabitants were different in language and religion from the Arabs, was conquered under the leadership of Amr ibn al-As. The native inhabitants were given the choice of adopting the new religion of Islam, or of retaining their Christian religion. Most inhabitants retained their own religion and therefore “the process of Arabization and Islamization that eventually took place was to take several centuries”.2 Under the rule of the Arabs, Egypt witnessed several types of governments who applied in their judging the Islamic law "Sharia" which was based on the Quran and the sayings of prophet Muhammed.3 Several changes during the rule of the Arabs have taken place which transformed Egypt from a Coptic Christian country to an Arab Muslim one. After becoming a province of a great Arab empire ruled by Caliphs in Medina and governor in Egypt, many Arab tribes migrated to Egypt during the eighth century, the
1 Hopwood, D. (1982). Egypt: Politics and society 1945-1981. London: Allen & Unwin.p9
2Marsot, A. L. A. S. (2007). A history of Egypt: from the Arab conquest to the present. Cambridge University Press. pp 1-29
3 ibidem
21 language of administration was replaced by the Arabic language, and the Coptic language disappeared.4
In 969, Egypt witnessed the beginning of a new dynasty, that invaded Egypt and lasted for two centuries until 1171. The Fatimi dynasty of North Africa introduced to Egypt “strange laws” including prohibiting women from appearing in public spaces. It was during such era that the crusaders invaded Egypt and caused insecurity among the population. This matter led to the interference of the Syrian armies in the Egyptian territories in 1169 “to oust the crusaders” and protect a Muslim country. The invasion of the Syrian troops in Egypt marked a victory against the Crusaders and ended the Fatimi Dynasty with its shii Islam to mark a beginning of the Ayyubid Dynasty with its Sunni Islam. During the rule of the Ayyubids, Egypt became a great intellectual and religious center for the Muslim countries. By the end of their Dynasty, the Turkic slave-soldiers named the ‘Mamluks’ who had been recruited to their armies marked a new era in the Egyptian history.5
During the Mamluk dynasty (1250-1516) Egypt was dominated by Turkic- speaking rulers who were strong and were respected by the native population at the beginning of their rule because they defended Egypt against the invaders (the Mongols).
Most of them were brought at younger age and were trained into military professions not available for the common people at their time. However, the Mamluk dynasty introduced to Egypt the system of slavery which lasted for several centuries.6 Such system of slavery female Slaves who were considered objects to be sold, purchased, or inherited either for
4 Thompson, J (2008): A history of Egypt: from earliest times to the present. American University in Cairo Press, pp 167-169
5 Marsot, A. L. A. S. (2007). A history of Egypt: From the Arab conquest to the present Cambridge University Press. pp 1-29
6 Ibid.Pp. 31-47
22 households’ services or as concubines for “sexual benefits” of their owners.7 These women had been brought from different countries such as Bosnia, Russia, or Ethiopia.
They were also kept in private domain or the harem of wealthy families.8 And by the term harem here it refers to something sacred and forbidden to be violated. It can either refer
to a space reserved to female members of the house inaccessible by male strangers or can refer to female members of households. Under the system of such harem, women witnessed seclusion inside their domestic spaces and differential treatment between male members of their family and themselves. Most often deprived of education, betrothed into early marriages, and had their faces covered in the public sphere as will be discussed later in the chapter. By the end of the fifteenth century, the Ottoman Empire became stronger in their military power and represented a threat to the Mamluks of Egypt. In 1517, the Ottomans entered Cairo and turned it to a province of a great Ottoman empire that shared the same religion but not the same language nor ethnicity. The Ottoman rule of Egypt (1516-1805) depended on entrusting the Egyptian government to a Mamluk appointed by Ottoman Sultan. Consequently, the Mamluks remained holding political and financial authority in Egypt which made the Ottoman viceroy only “a figurehead” and the Mamluks the true rulers of Egypt until the French occupation of Egypt in 1798.9
The French invasion of Egypt in the 18th century marked the beginning of a modern era and the “incursion of a European power” inside a Muslim territory which had been isolated from the West and from any kind of modernization.10 It was under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1798, that the French armies invaded Egypt accompanied by
7 Hanna, N. (2005). Sources for the study of slave women and concubines in Ottoman Egypt. In Sonbol, A.
E. A. (Ed.). (2005). Beyond the exotic: women's histories in Islamic societies(pp.119-130). American University in Cairo Press.
8 Baer, G. (1967). Slavery in nineteenth century Egypt. The Journal of African History, 8(3), 417-441.
9 Marsot, A. L. A. S. (2007). A history of Egypt: From the Arab conquest to the present Cambridge University Press. Pp.31-51
10 Moaddel, M. (1998). Religion and women: Islamic modernism versus fundamentalism. Journal for the scientific study of religion, 108-130.
23 a large number of scientists. The aim of the French invasion was to turn Egypt into a French colony as well as controlling an important route of the British which leaded to India. Exceeding the Mamluks in number and in military discipline, the French soldiers, launched a battle against them in which a great number of Mamluks were killed and the survivors fled to Upper Egypt.11 By the fleeing of the Mamluks to Upper Egypt, the common population became convinced that those were incapable of protecting their land from foreign invaders. Thus, they realized that they needed different rulers who could replace those Mamluks.12
In 1801, a combined British and Ottoman forces organized an expedition on Egypt and ousted the French resulting a ''chaotic'' period characterized by a struggle on power control between the Ottomans, the Mamluks, and the British. Desperate of the situation of insecurity and instability prevailing in their country, the religious leaders known as the Ulama became aware that Egypt needed a strong ruler. Thus, they asked Muhammed Ali,
an officer who had entered Egypt in 1801 with a Turkish force to fight the French, to become their governor.13 It is worth mentioning that those Ulama were men of religion who came from urban and rural parts inside Egypt and then occupied a special position in society during the 18th century when religion dominated the life of the people. They were influential and worked as intermediators between the citizens and their ruler to the extent that they had been regarded by the Egyptian population as their true leaders. They gained their political and economic power during the rule of the Mamluks and the French occupation of Egypt. Such importance given to them was seen when Napoleon Bonaparte aimed at winning their loyalty out of his recognition of the important position they
11 Thompson, J (2008): A history of Egypt: from earliest times to the present. American University in Cairo Press, pp 219-220
12 Marsot, A. L. A. S. (2007). A history of Egypt: From the Arab conquest to the present Cambridge University Press. Pp 49-69
13 ibidem
24 occupied among the native population. However, the role of the Ulama demised in 1805 when Muhammed Ali ruled the country.14
1.2. Modernization and intellectual enhancement during the 19th century
By 1805 Muhammed Ali had been recognized by the Egyptian people as their ruler
“who was to change the history of Egypt. To consolidate his rule, Ali first directed his efforts to eliminate any possible obstacle to his power. For this, first he killed the Mamluks, then he directed his efforts towards building his own army and modernizing his country.15 His efforts towards strengthening the army and turning it into a “European- style fighting force” aimed at following the steps of Europe of “a dynamic society rationally exploiting its resources and administering its affairs, with national strength as the criterion of law and policy.”16 Thus, he worked on building modern economy and on improving the system of irrigation and transportation as well as creating advanced industries. Not only did Ali focus his efforts on the economic improvement, but also he directed his plans towards the intellectual enhancement of the people. For this, he opened schools, sent educational missions to Europe and requested the translations of European works to be printed in the press. According to the historian Albert Horani, the libraries of the schools Ali opened, for example, included works of Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu.17 His efforts of encouraging the translations of European works during the
14 Marsot, A. L. A. S. (1973). The Political and Economic Functions of the 'Ulamā' in the 18th Century. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient/Journal de l'histoire economique et sociale de l'Orient, 130-154. See also Burke, J. C. (1992). The Role of the ʻUlamāʼ During the French Rule of Egypt 1798-1801 (Doctoral dissertation, McGill University Libraries).
15 Marsot, A. L. A. S. (2007). A history of Egypt: From the Arab conquest to the present Cambridge University Press. pp. 29-69. See also. Baer, G. (1967). Slavery in nineteenth century Egypt. The Journal of African History, 8(3), 417-441.
16 Hourani, A. (1962). Arabic thought in the liberal age 1798-1939. Cambridge University Press.Pp51-54
17 ibidem
25 first half of the 19th century, were directed towards enabling doctors, engineers and army officers to learn western sciences.18 The reforms adopted by Muhamad Ali, also included medical reforms by which he approved the project presented to him by the French doctor Clot Bay of opening a school for midwives in 1832 where girls were instructed in subjects related to curing diseases and child delivery. With the opening of the school in 1832, and due to families' refusal to send their daughters for education due to their conservative traditions, slaves were bought by Clot Bey during the first year, to be instructed in such school. In the following year orphans and most needed girls were convinced to join the school where education was free as well as a financial remuneration was given. 19
Sending educational missions to Europe to enable Egyptian students to acquire new European sciences and modern technologies had a positive impact on the future of Egypt and, consequently, on the situation of women. The impact of the European modernization, either directly by the contact with the Europeans or indirectly through translations of European works, pushed reformers to criticize certain aspects existing inside the Egyptian society.20 Such criticism formed part of an intellectual awakening movement known in Arabic by the term al-Nahda which literally means Renaissance or Modern Renaissance. This movement of (al-Nahda) took place during the first half of the 19th century a period during which Islamic intellectuals had encountered with the western development and came to realize the existing gap between their own societies and the west.21 This encounter had made them recognized that their society had reached a state of decline and stagnation as a result of ignorance which had led to people’s
18 Patel, A. (2013). The Arab Nahdah: The making of the intellectual and humanist movement. Edimburgo:
University Press.Pp163-164
19y Sel, C. R. D. A. (1989). Historia del movimiento feminista egipcio. Universidad de Granada. Pp159-160.
20 Moaddel, M. (1998). Religion and women: Islamic modernism versus fundamentalism. Journal for the scientific study of religion, 108-130.
21 Patel, A. (2013). The Arab Nahdah: The making of the intellectual and humanist movement. Edimburgo:
University Press. Pp12-13
26 backwardness. Hence, they advocated for the idea that it was necessary for the Islamic societies to borrow from the west to cope with the modernization process. Yet, this idea was controlled by a strategy of “acceptance and rejection.” In other words, their notion of learning from the European experience of modernization was encouraged only in matters related to acquiring sciences and modern technologies which were compatible with the Islamic values and traditions while at the same time rejecting western
philosophical thought. 22
I want to point out here that the Arab Nahda during the 19th century was preceded by a similar intellectual movement in Europe which started from the late seventeenth century till the late eighteenth century. Such movement in Europe known as the Enlightenment focused on the individual right in rational thinking. Initially, the ideas of the Illustration were based on the concept of the emancipation of any individual from any prejudice imposed since a human being is capable of using his rationality and reason.
Rationality, autonomy and emancipation, were therefore considered by intellectuals of such period as concepts that should be universalized and applied to the entire human species.23 In her book The origins of modern feminism: Women in Britain, France and the United States, Jane Rendall explained that intellectuals such as John Locke, Voltaire,
and Diderot, had challenged the authority of that time and asserted the individual’s right in the enjoyment of conscience and freedom of speech as well as religion. In the Social Contract, as Rendall further explained, Jean-Jaques Rousseau one of the famous
intellectual of the Illustration, went further to assert the right of individuals to express their political opinions in the government as citizens. Nonetheless, the Enlightenment did not include women as equal individuals in the principles of rationalism but rather their
22 Ibid Pp 159-199
23 Beltrán, E., & Maquieira D'Angelo, V. (2001). Feminismos: debates teóricos contemporáneos. Madrid:
Alianza Editorial.Pp17-20
27 position rotated around “what was natural for their sex” as appeared from Rousseau’s discourse on women.24 Rousseau claimed that women were lacking rational thought and creativity- characteristics that have been categorized with men - and that their functions were distinct from those of men due to their sexual and procreative functions. He further regarded woman as a source of danger and evil to men and the human world and therefore advocated for the idea of women’s subjugation. Rousseau’s ideas and theories regarding women, as highlighted Susan Okin, were “representative of a long tradition. They cannot, however, be glossed over as mere biases or assumptions of the contemporary scene or as anachronistic prejudices to which he gave little thought, which have slight bearing on the main body of his work, and which in all difference to his genius, should be tactfully ignored.”25
Rousseau differentiated in the moral conduct between males and females in his writings. According to him a man’s morals should be guided by his capacity of reason, while on the contrary his female companion should be guided through the opinion of the collective male group since she in not capable of reason. Rousseau ideas of the role of women is restricted to the domestic sphere where women should act as the guardians of morals without interfering into the public sphere which belongs to male members of society.26 Such belief included female education which should be restricted, as he believed, to preparing women from an early age in order to become good companions to men and making life for men more pleasant for men. Thus, Rousseau ideas and purpose of female education, according to Cristina Sanchez, was to cultivate female dependency.
Rousseau defended the structure of the patriarchal family by considering women as
24Rendall, J. (1985). The Origins of Modern Feminism: Women in Britain, France and the United States, 1780-1860. Macmillan Press.pp15-16
25 Okin, S. M. (1979). Women in Western Political Thought. Princeton University Press.
26 Beltrán, E., & Maquieira D'Angelo, V. (2001). Feminismos: debates teóricos contemporáneos. Madrid:
Alianza Editorial
28 merely dependent human beings who belong to the private sphere due to their reproductive and sexual nature. On the opposite side, he considered men, as the source of income, independent human beings who belong to the public sphere. As a consequence of those ideas advocated by Rousseau and other intellectuals of his period, there appeared a group of intellectuals who adopted an opposite opinion. The exclusion of women from the universalist principles pushed prominent figures such as Condorcet and Mary Wollstonecraft to reclaim the principles of the Illustration to include women as well as men. Condorcet, for instance contradicted those ideas of Rousseau and highlighted that the existing differences between men and women was an outcome of education by which an individual’s emancipation could be achieved.27
Further, such polemical debate led to the emergence of intellectual Salons in France in the 17th century, hosted by women and included well known philosophers such as Diderot and Voltaire who discussed important issues related to women. During the period 1789 -1793 and through the 19th century, women claimed their right in the public sphere as citizens through their continuous calls for revindications to their rights to education, work, their rights inside marriage as well as their right to vote. Women’s demands for those rights resulted into some legal advancement in the French laws and the French Constitution of 1791. However, such Constitution distinguished between men and women as active or passive citizens, the matter that resulted into the appearance of the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791) by Olympe de
Gouges.28 During the 17th century, the French Francois Poulain de la Barre argued “that women are as capable as men of gaining the skills and knowledge that would enable them to participate equality in virtually all economic and social activities.” In France, by the
27 Beltrán, E., & Maquieira D'Angelo, V. (2001). Feminismos: debates teóricos contemporáneos. Madrid:
Alianza Editorial.pp27-28
28 ibid. Pp30-32
29 late eighteenth century women claimed as well “that principles of the Enlightenment applied to them too, and that political rights belonged to them as much as to men.” Valerie Bryson highlights that the feminist demands during the French revolution had great influence on other countries. 29
The debate on women and their rights did not appeared in France only, but was coined with other debates in different European Countries. In Britain, Mary Wollstonecraft who was born in England in 1759, in her famous book A Vindication of the Rights of Women, she was concerned with refuting the ideas of Rousseau who claimed
that the biological differences between boys and girls define the role of each sex and their education and insisted that principles of the Enlightenment could be applied to both sexes.30 She affirmed that women as individuals who possess reason should acquire human virtues in the same manner as men.31 Wollstonecraft highlighted the idea that women were transformed into weak human beings through the education they receive as a result of cultural influence which aims to justify such weakness as a natural factor. She believed that women’s education cultivates in them their individuality as a rational and autonomous beings.32
Mary Wollstonecraft, moreover, refuted the idea of the “ascribed social roles” that are associated to both men and women and claimed women’s right in education, employment and freedom of choice. Her ideas -as highlights Bryson- “were to lead to
29 Bryson, V. (2003). Feminist political theory: An introduction (2nd ed.). New York; Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Pp15-16
30 Ibídem
31 Beltrán, E., & Maquieira D'Angelo, V. (2001). Feminismos: debates teóricos contemporáneos. Madrid:
Alianza Editorial. Pp32-33
32 Beltrán, E., & Maquieira D'Angelo, V. (2001). Feminismos: debates teóricos contemporáneos. Madrid:
Alianza Editorial. Pp32-35
30 later campaigns for women’s suffrage and legal rights and, eventually to the demand for equal participation with men in the worlds of politics and paid employment”.33
In her book A Vindication of the Rights of Women which published in 1792, she demanded equal education for both sexes and the rights for citizenship for women. Wollstonecraft also criticized Rousseau’ ideas which conceptualized a female model through which women were depicted as weak and inferior to men, which is a matter that contradicts Nature. In her criticism of Rousseau’s female model – which was represented in the character Sofia - Wollstonecraft criticized Rousseau’s artificial model of a woman explaining that such model is an imaginary model invented by Rousseau which has no historical roots. For Wollstonecraft, as highlights Celia Amoros, the principle criticism towards Rousseau is his way of analyzing customs and habits as if they were a product of nature ignoring the fact that women is directed towards such characteristics through a process of socialization since an early stage.34
Moreover, in the 19th century, John Stuart Mill published his essay The Subjection of Women in 1869, which is considered a landmark in the history of feminism since Mill
was “the only major liberal political philosopher to have set out explicitly to apply the principles of liberalism to women.” 35 Mill’s adopted a feminist thinking from an early age and during the period of the 1820s and 1830s, he criticized the common views on the position of women and the differential treatment towards both sexes and published some articles in the Westminster Review and Le Globe. Mill’s feminist beliefs were, further, enriched by several factors including his inspiration and admiration of strong female characters such as Harriet Taylor whom he met in 1830. Such influence played an influential role, as highlights Jane Rendall, in “leading Mill towards an unusually
33 Bryson, V. (2003). Feminist political theory: An introduction (2nd ed.). New York; Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. p17
34 (Amorós, 1994) Pp23-26
35 Okin, S. M. (1979). Women in Western Political Thought. Princeton University Press.
31 sympathetic treatment of women’s situation.” Mill stance towards the issue of women- as highlights Jane Rendall- articulated through two perspectives; the Utilitarian and the Liberal perspectives. From the utilitarian perspective, he considered women’s position and enhancement as beneficial to the whole society while from liberal perspective, he considered women’s enhancement as necessary for their own individuality. Mill rejected the idea of women’s biological inferiority and argued that such inferiority is an artificial product of the process of their upbringing through which they were raised from an early age to accept submission. He called for the legal reform of marriage inside Britain to allow women equality inside the family. He called for women’s participation in public professions and occupations.36
Despite that it appeared to me that there is no enough documented Arabic material that speaks about the direct influence of the European illustration on the Arab awakening movement. Yet, there are various resources which speak about the influence of the European modernization process and the image of the French women on Egyptian intellectuals. The reformers of the Enlightenment, for instance, included three prominent figures; Rifaa al-Tahtawi (1801-1873), Mohammed Abdou (1849-1905) and Qasim Amin (1863- 1908). Though, the time difference between al-Tahtawi’s ideas and Amin’s ideas were fifty-five years, yet, the three of them had been residing in France for several years and all of them introduced modern and new challenging ideas on women of which both education and work were two important pillars for any enhancement of the society.
In introducing those ideas of elevating the status of their societies, al nahda reformers articulated innovative ideas inside their society. They based their arguments on the importance of re-examining Islam to challenge erroneous misconceptions regarding
36 Rendall, J. (1985). The Origins of Modern Feminism: Women in Britain, France and the United States, 1780-1860. Macmillan Press.Pp286-287
32 women and their situation in Egypt.37 Yet, those reformers did not reject the role of religion from their conception of modernity. Amin, for instance, when advocating his innovative ideas it seemed clear that he was not negating the role of religion in his discourse for modernity, but he was advocating for the rejection of any inherited custom which kept Egyptian women in an inferior status than that of the European women. This was reflected in his book when he explained that there was a need to disapprove any inappropriate inherited behavior and to follow the good ones. We can see this when he wrote:
“Should we be satisfied with our present condition and accept the ways of our forefathers while others around us race toward happiness, the resources of comfort, and positions of strength, thus quickly overtaking us? Should we stand and stare at them, either because we are unaware of our position or because we feel it and are perplexed and baffled by it? It is not our responsibility to compare how others have advanced and how we have fallen back? How they have become strong and we have become weak? How they have become happy and we have become miserable? This comparison will force us to look again at our religion and the ways in which our pious predecessors lived, and to follow in their footsteps. We like them, will then listen to the teachings, follow the good aspects of those teachings, learn to disapprove of inappropriate behavior, accept the good components, and walk the road of happiness, progress and strength.”38
37 Badran, M. (1995): Feminists, Islam, and Nation: gender and the making of modern Egypt, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
38 Amin, Q. (2000). The Liberation of Women and the New Woman: Two documents in the history of Egyptian feminism, trans. S. Sidhom Peterson, Cairo: American University
of Cairo Press. P46
33 1.3. Egyptian Male reformers and the Emancipation of women
Rifaa al-Tahtawi was the first intellectual to include women in his discourse of modernity.39 Born in a religious family in the town of Tahta, he moved in 1817 to Cairo to study in al-Azhar and later became one of the members of Muhammed Ali’s missions sent to study in Paris. The period of 1826-1831 which he spent in France had marked an important phase in his life during which he focused his efforts on studying the French language and on reading books for big philosophers such as Rousseau and Voltaire. His experience in Paris and his admiration of the French modern life with its cleanliness, education of children, and intellectual curiosity were reflected in his writings.40 After his return from France he opened the door, starting from 1831, for future generations to use personal ijtihad or the rational interpretation of religious texts to reform the Islamic law.41 At the beginning of his writings, al-Tahtawi offered a description of the condition and life of the French women expressed his admiration of how those women had the freedom to express their opinions and take part in public life. Then he wrote in about the situation of Egyptian women criticizing social constraints forced on them which resulted in their backwardness.42 Believing in the importance of education, in his famous book named Al- Murshid al-Amin fi Tarbiyat al Banat wa'l Banin in 1872 which literally means (The
honest or Trusted Guide for the Education of Girls and Boys), Al-Tahtawi advocated for female education including reading and writing which he considered important for every girl’s manners as well as enriching her mind and knowledge to enable her to be worthy
39 El Sadda, H., & Abu Ghazi, I. (2001). Significant moments in the history of Egyptian Women. National Council for Women, Cairo. Egypt
40 Hourani, A. (1962). Arabic thought in the liberal age 1798-1939. Cambridge University Press.pp67-83
41 Patel, A. (2013). The Arab Nahdah: The making of the intellectual and humanist movement. Edimburgo:
University Press. Pp181-199.
42 Khatab, F. (2007). Women and Pioneers of the Enlightenment. Egyptian General Book Authority. Cairo.
34 of admiration of her husband.43 Therefore, he asserted that girls should be educated on the “same footing” of boys. Yet his position on this issue was motivated by three purposes: preparing good wives, guaranteeing a good childrearing, and saving women from committing gossips. According to Hourani, al-Tahtawi did not “seem to suggest that they should come out of seclusion and take part in public life” 44
Similar to al-Tahtawi’s ideas, Mohamed Abdu emerged as another important intellectual figure of the Arab Renaissance who saw in the necessity of acquiring modern learning for civilization. Born in a small village in 1839 where he memorized the sacred book al-Quran, Abdu moved to Cairo to study in the Islamic religious institution of al- Azhar where he gradually occupied several positions until he became the Grand Mufti of
Egypt. Abdu became known by his articles published in famous newspapers of his times such as al-Ahram. He called for a true understanding of the Islamic religion and advocated for the re-examining of the sacred texts, namely al-Quran and al-Sunnah. Away from the interpretations of different religious sects, Abdu believed that Islam is compatible with modernization and the acquisition of learnings. Therefore, he believed that any reform should begin with encouraging religious awareness among Muslims and fighting superstitions 45 He wanted to reconcile Islamic studies with the learning of modern developments in history, mathematics, and physics. For this he called for the reform of al-Azhar institution, however, his appeals concerning al-Azhar were faced with
oppositions from conservative religious members.46 Like al-Tahtawi, Muhammed Abdu aimed at improving the social aspects of his society through gradual reform. And for this
43El Sadda, H., & Abu Ghazi, I. (2001). Significant moments in the history of Egyptian Women. National Council for Women, Cairo. Egypt
44 Hourani, A. (1962). Arabic thought in the liberal age 1798-1939. Cambridge University Press. Chicago.
Pp77-78
45 Khatab, F. (2007). Women and Pioneers of the Enlightenment. Egyptian General Book Authority, Cairo.P24
46 Patel, A. (2013). The Arab Nahdah: The making of the intellectual and humanist movement. Edimburgo:
University Press.Pp190-193
35 he regarded education as the “single most important means for reaching this goal.”47 By the 1870s, due to the political situation inside Egypt which paved the way for the appearance of a nationalist discourse, Abdu's ideas articulated within a nationalist argument in which he put emphasis in his articles on national education. 48 His school of thought influenced Qasim Amin, a young student of law who came to be the most important male reformer of al-Nahda and of the history of women’s enhancement.
A disciple of Abdu, Amin believed in the social reform, therefore he studied the reasons of his nation’s backwardness, the foreign control over his country’s resources, and linked this situation with women’s ignorance and her inferior status. For this, he believed in the importance of education and the reestablishing of the institution of the family as methods to gaining independence.49 Born in an aristocratic family, Qasim Amin was sent after graduation in 1881 from the Law school on an educational scholarship to Europe. His study in the University of Montepellier in France and his exposure to the European culture represented a “turning point in his life.”50 During the four years of his stay in Paris, Amin improved and enriched an intellectual thinking on important social and political issues of his time. First, he acquired an interest in reading works of big authors like Darwin, Marx and others. Then he engaged into a direct contact with Egyptian national leaders, exiled in 1883, in Paris after the Ourabi Revolution. Those leaders included prominent intellectuals namely Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammed Abdu. Amin believed that the enhancement of society could start by the social reform of
47 Ibídem
48 Hourani, A. (1962). Arabic thought in the liberal age 1798-1939. Cambridge University Press. Chicago.
Pp130-160
49 Khatab, F. (2007). Women and Pioneers of the Enlightenment. Egyptian General Book Authority, Cairo.
50 Saad El-Din, Mursi (2005, September 15-21).Plain Talk, Ahram weekly online News, Issue No. 760 Retrieved from http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/Archive/2005/760/cu3.htm. Accessed 9/8/2017
