Uporaba avtentičnih pesmi v 2. in 3. razredu osnovne šole

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(1)Univerza v Mariboru. Filozofska fakulteta Oddelek za anglistiko in amerikanistiko. Tadeja Vučko. MAGISTRSKO DELO. Maribor, april 2018.

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(3) Univerza v Mariboru. Filozofska fakulteta Oddelek za anglistiko in amerikanistiko. Tadeja Vučko. THE USE OF AUTHENTIC SONGS IN 2ND AND 3RD GRADE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL UPORABA AVTENTIČNIH PESMI PRI POUKU ANGLEŠČINEV 2. IN 3. RAZREDU OSNOVNE ŠOLE. MAGISTRSKO DELO. Mentor: red. prof. dr. Janez Skela Somentorica: asis. dr. Melita Kukovec. Maribor, april 2018.

(4) Lektorica slovenskega povzetka: Tatjana Praprotnik Žaucer, profesorica slovenskega jezika in sociologije.

(5) ZAHVALA Zahvaljujem se mentorjema red. prof. dr. Janezu Skela in asis. dr. Meliti Kukovec, za vso znanje, ki sem ga pridobila pri predmetu didaktika angleščine. Menim, da me je prav ta predmet najbolje pripravil na delo v šoli. Iskreno se vama zahvaljujem za trud, vodenje in strokovno pomoč pri nastajanju dela. Srčna hvala mami Idi, ki me podpira pri vsaki odločitvi. Ni besed, ki bi lahko izrazile, kako hvaležna sem ji za vse, kar počne zame in za mojo družino. Hvala tudi očetu Marjanu za popotnico, da vem kaj lahko in kaj tudi zmorem. Pogrešam ga ob vsakem koraku. Posebna zahvala hčeri Neji in sinu Jaki za dokaj mirne noči, veliko potrpežljivosti, ljubezni, smeha, ki ju izžarevata. Neskončno ju imam rada. Hvala tudi partnerju Matjažu, da me je pri tej odločitvi podprl in potrpežljivo prenašal vse vzpone in padce. Bilo je vredno. Hvala še vsem prijateljem za obzirnost ob pomanjkanju časa zanje in spodbude, da dosežem svoje cilje. In nenazadnje hvala sodelavki in prijateljici Tatjani, ki me je ob vsaki krizi spomnila, da moram in tudi zmorem končati, kar sem začela..

(6) IZJAVA O AVTORSTVU IN ISTOVETNOSTI TISKANE IN ELEKTRONSKE OBLIKE ZAKLJUČNEGA DELA. UNIVERZA V MARIBORU Filozofska fakulteta. IZJAVA O AVTORSTVU IN ISTOVETNOSTI TISKANE IN ELEKTRONSKE OBLIKE ZAKLJUČNEGA DELA. Ime in priimek študentke: Tadeja Vučko Študijski program: Poučevanje angleščine Naslov zaključnega dela: THE USE OF AUTHENTIC SONGS IN 2ND AND 3RD GRADE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL. Mentor: red. prof. dr. Janez Skela Somentor: asis. dr. Melita Kukovec Podpisan-i/-a študent/-ka Tadeja Vučko • izjavljam, da je zaključno delo rezultat mojega samostojnega dela, ki sem ga izdelal/-a ob pomoči mentor-ja/-ice oz. somentor-ja/-ice; • izjavljam, da sem pridobil/-a vsa potrebna soglasja za uporabo podatkov in avtorskih del v zaključnem delu in jih v zaključnem delu jasno in ustrezno označil/-a; • na Univerzo v Mariboru neodplačno, neizključno, prostorsko in časovno neomejeno prenašam pravico shranitve avtorskega dela v elektronski obliki, pravico reproduciranja ter pravico ponuditi zaključno delo javnosti na svetovnem spletu preko DKUM; sem seznanjen/-a, da bodo dela deponirana/objavljena v DKUM dostopna široki javnosti pod pogoji licence Creative Commons BY-NC-ND, kar vključuje tudi avtomatizirano indeksiranje preko spleta in obdelavo besedil za potrebe tekstovnega in podatkovnega rudarjenja in ekstrakcije znanja iz vsebin; uporabnikom se dovoli reproduciranje brez predelave avtorskega dela, distribuiranje, dajanje v najem in priobčitev javnosti samega izvirnega avtorskega dela, in sicer pod pogojem, da navedejo avtorja in da ne gre za komercialno uporabo; • dovoljujem objavo svojih osebnih podatkov, ki so navedeni v zaključnem delu in tej izjavi, skupaj z objavo zaključnega dela; • izjavljam, da je tiskana oblika zaključnega dela istovetna elektronski obliki zaključnega dela, ki sem jo oddal/-a za objavo v DKUM..

(7) . Uveljavljam permisivnejšo obliko licence Creative Commons: obliko). (navedite. Začasna nedostopnost:. Zaključno delo zaradi zagotavljanja konkurenčne prednosti, zaščite poslovnih skrivnosti, varnosti ljudi in narave, varstva industrijske lastnine ali tajnosti podatkov naročnika: (naziv in naslov naročnika/institucije) ne sme biti javno dostopno do (datum odloga javne objave ne sme biti daljši kot 3 leta od zagovora dela). To se nanaša na tiskano in elektronsko obliko zaključnega dela.. Temporary unavailability:. To ensure competition priority, protection of trade secrets, safety of people and nature, protection of industrial property or secrecy of customer's information, the thesis (institution/company name and address) must not be accessible to the public till (delay date of thesis availability to the public must not exceed the period of 3 years after thesis defense). This applies to printed and electronic thesis forms.. Datum in kraj:. Podpis študentke:. Maribor, 10. 4. 2018. Podpis mentor-ja/-ice: (samo v primeru, če delo ne sme biti javno dostopno) Ime in priimek ter podpis odgovorne osebe naročnika in žig:. (samo v primeru, če delo ne sme biti javno dostopno).

(8) POVZETEK Otroci se jezika učijo drugače kot odrasli. Učenje otrok poteka bolj spontano in naravno. Večina otrok v Sloveniji se angleščine kot tujega jezika prične učiti v prvem oz. najkasneje drugem razredu osnovne šole. Pri poučevanju tujega jezika morajo učitelji uporabljati gradiva in metode, ki so primerna starostni stopnji otrok. Takšna gradiva so tudi izvirne pesmi. Skozi njih se učenci spoznajo z jezikom maternih govorcev. Magistrsko delo se osredotoča na uporabo avtentičnih pesmi v drugem in tretjem razredu osnovne šole pri pouku angleškega jezika. Navedeni so razlogi za uporabo pri pouku, kriteriji za lažjo izbiro pesmi in načini, kako jih lahko vključujemo pri pouku tujega jezika. Ob tem so navedene prednosti in slabosti uporabe izvirnih gradiv in napotki, kako pesmi pripraviti za uporabo pri pouku. V delu so predstavljeni primeri uporabe pesmi "Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush", "Wind the Bobbin Up", "Rain, Rain, Go Away", "The Big Ship Sails", "Ring Around the Rosie" in "Hickory Dickory Dock". Pesmi imajo zanimiv izvor, hkrati pa lahko na njihovi osnovi spoznavamo različne teme, ki so zajete v učnem načrtu za tuji jezik v drugem in tretjem razredu. KLJUČNE BESEDE: pesmi, izvirna gradiva, angleščina v drugem in tretjem razredu.

(9) ABSTRACT Children learn languages differently from adults. They learn more spontaneously and naturally. Most students in Slovenia begin learning English as their first foreign language in the second grade of primary school at the latest. Teachers have to use age appropriate materials and methods. Authentic songs are materials that introduce the language of native speakers. The thesis focuses on the use of authentic songs in the 2nd and 3rd grade of primary school. The theoretical part contains the reasons, the criteria for the choice of songs and the ways to use them in class. It lists the advantages and disadvantages of authentic materials and suggests how to prepare authentic materials for the use in the classroom. The empirical part presents examples of the classroom use of the songs "Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush", "Wind the Bobbin Up", "Rain, Rain, Go Away", "The Big Ship Sails", "Ring Around the Rosie" and "Hickory Dickory Dock". The songs have very interesting origins and can set the basis for the introduction of various themes that are included in the English syllabus for the 2nd and 3rd grade of primary school. KEY WORDS: songs, authentic materials, English classes in the second and third grade.

(10) Table of Contents 1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................................... 3 3. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES ................................................................................. 4 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................ 5 5. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................................................... 6 5.1 ENGLISH CLASSES IN 2ND AND 3RD GRADE ........................................................................... 6 5.1.1. Curriculum changes ........................................................................................................................ 6 5.1.2. The syllabus - goals, topics and didactic recommendations ......................................... 6 5.1.3. How young students learn ............................................................................................................ 9 5.1.4. Learning styles, strategies and multiple intelligences .................................................. 12 5.1.5. Listening and speaking skills ................................................................................................... 18 5.2 THE USE OF SONGS ........................................................................................................................... 20 5.2.1. Why use songs ................................................................................................................................. 20 5.2.2. Criteria for the choice of songs ................................................................................................ 25 5.2.3. How to use songs ........................................................................................................................... 28 5.2.4. Authentic materials in class ..................................................................................................... 30 5.2.5. The advantages and disadvantages of authentic materials ....................................... 31 5.2.6. How to prepare authentic materials for the use in the classroom .......................... 33. 6. EMPIRICAL PART .......................................................................................... 34 6.1 AUTHENTIC SONGS THAT CAN BE USED IN ENGLISH CLASSES IN 2ND AND 3RD GRADE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL .................................................................................................................. 34 6.2 EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF SONGS ............................................................................................ 35 6.2.1. Here We Go Round the Mulberry Bush ................................................................................ 35 6.2.2. Ring Around the Rosie ................................................................................................................. 42 6.2.3. Wind the Bobbin Up ..................................................................................................................... 47 6.2.4. Rain, Rain, Go Away ..................................................................................................................... 52 6.2.5. The Big Ship Sails .......................................................................................................................... 57 6.2.6. Hickory Dickory Dock .................................................................................................................. 62 6.3 FURTHER RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................ 66. i.

(11) 7. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................ 68 8. WORKS CITED ............................................................................................... 70 9. APPENDIX .................................................................................................... 73 • Lesson 1 ........................................................................................................ 73 Pictures for the chores ................................................................................................................................ 73 Worksheet 1: Here We Go Around the Mulberry Bush ................................................................. 77 Worksheet 2: Here We Go Around the Mulberry Bush ................................................................. 78. • Lesson 2 ........................................................................................................ 79 Worksheet 1: Ring Around The Rosie .................................................................................................. 79. • Lesson 3 ........................................................................................................ 80 Worksheet 1: Wind the Bobbin Up ........................................................................................................ 80. • Lesson 4 ........................................................................................................ 81 Pictures for the introduction of the topic ............................................................................................ 81 Worksheet 1: The Weather ....................................................................................................................... 82 Pictures .............................................................................................................................................................. 83. • Lesson 5 ........................................................................................................ 84 Pictures of objects used in the experiment ........................................................................................ 84 Worksheet ........................................................................................................................................................ 85. • Lesson 6 ........................................................................................................ 86 Worksheet ........................................................................................................................................................ 86. ii.

(12) 1. INTRODUCTION Primary school students in Slovenia attend over 400 different primary schools and have the chance to learn different foreign languages. However, most of the schools choose English as the first foreign language that the students learn. From September 2016 students start learning the first foreign language as a compulsory subject in the second grade. Later, in the fourth grade they get a chance to learn a second foreign language and three years later they have an option to choose a third foreign language if they want. Schools offer a variety of foreign languages, starting with English, the languages of our neighboring countries (German, Hungarian, Croatian and Italian) and languages such as Spanish and French. In addition to the obligatory first foreign language, a student can learn two additional foreign languages at Slovenian primary schools. Since the obligatory early language learning at primary schools is a novelty, I focused on the learners in the second and third grade. Considering the age of the learners, the teacher has to use different age appropriate teaching techniques. There are many ways to motivate such young learners and keep them focused. I believe the use of songs is one of them. Children like to sing and play. Songs can combine these two activities and contribute to a positive learning atmosphere. This thesis examines the use of songs while learning English as a foreign language in the second and third grade. As teachers are often on their own when they are choosing the materials to work with, I aim at finding authentic songs that fit the school curriculum of the second and third grade to ease the choice. The thesis focuses on the use of authentic songs and the suggestions on how they can be used in a foreign language class. The theoretical part acts as a backdrop for the empirical part of the thesis. It contains information about the syllabus, learning styles and strategies, the role of multiple intelligences and the ways children learn. At the same time, it includes the reasons for using songs, particularly songs in the form of authentic materials, the importance of appropriate criteria for the selection of the songs, the ways of using them and their advantages and disadvantages.. 1.

(13) The empirical part consists of a list of authentic songs, some information on their origin and a suggested lesson plan for each of the songs. It focuses on songs containing vocabulary that fits the syllabus, and songs with many cross-curricular links. At the end, one can find additional information about the materials, and further recommendations for teachers.. . 2.

(14) 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Nowadays many people know and learn foreign languages. Modern technologies give us the opportunity to overcome big distances and barriers, find connections and search for information all over the world - be it in person or over the Internet. To be able to understand and find all the information you need, one has to master foreign languages. Most students begin learning their first foreign language in the second grade of primary school at the latest. Teachers use different tools, materials and technologies. The purpose of this master thesis is to find age and syllabus appropriate authentic songs that can be used in English classes. The main aims of the study are: - To research and present the reasons and ways for the use of authentic materials. - To find appropriate authentic songs that can be used in English as a foreign language (EFL) classes in the second and third grade. - To find appropriate teaching tools and techniques and write lesson plans that fit the syllabus. - To present some ideas on how to use authentic songs in the classroom.. 3.

(15) 3. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES. The following hypotheses contain some assumptions about the use of songs as authentic material in EFL classes in the second and third grade. Hypotheses 1: The use of songs contributes to the positive learning experience. It is assumed that the use of songs has a big impact on the learning experience of children, since children like music and singing. Hypotheses 2: Various authentic songs contain the vocabulary and/or the content that fits the syllabus for teaching English as a foreign language in the second and third grade of primary school. It is assumed that one can find a number of songs suited for the use in EFL class. Hypotheses 3: Songs can be used for introducing new vocabulary and grammar, as well as for practicing listening and speaking skills. It is assumed that songs can be used in different ways and to achieve various goals.. 4.

(16) 4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. The methods used in the theoretical part are descriptive and comparative. This part is based on known facts on language teaching, theories and experiences of experts in the field of language teaching and didactics. Theoretical research provides information, gathered through the descriptive method. This information is compared, analyzed, and used to show the place of EFL in Slovenian primary schools. It contains information on curriculum changes and the goals, topics and didactic recommendations for the teachers. Furthermore, it provides an insight into how young children learn and clarifies the role of listening and speaking skills in learning languages. Additionally, the synthesis of the information gives us some basic insight on the use of songs as authentic materials. The second part is the empirical part. It contains some suggestions on how to use songs as authentic materials in a foreign language classroom. Each song on the list of songs that can be used in EFL classroom in the second and third grade of primary schools includes a lesson plan and materials needed for the execution of the lesson.. 5.

(17) 5. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 5.1 ENGLISH CLASSES IN 2ND AND 3RD GRADE 5.1.1. Curriculum changes Before 2016 students in primary schools began learning their first foreign language in 4th grade, if this was not organized as an optional subject by the school. But since September 2016, students all over Slovenia have a chance to start in the first grade. Most schools chose English as their first foreign language. The National Education Institute Slovenia issued recommendations on early language learning, but it is up to the teacher to choose the materials and approaches. I find it challenging to find appropriate authentic material that fits the syllabus and can be enjoyable for the learners. That is why I focused on the use of authentic songs that could contribute to the learning experience of the children and could become helpful for the teachers.. 5.1.2. The syllabus - goals, topics and didactic recommendations A group of primary school teachers, university professors and members of the National Education Institute Slovenia composed the syllabus for English as an optional subject classes in the first grade and as a compulsory subject for the second and the third grade. The teachers in primary school got the syllabus and had seminars and workshops to prepare for the subject. The syllabus contains the description of the concept of the subject, its goals, topics and recommendations for didactic materials and techniques. It follows the goals set by the European Union: "One of the EU's multilingualism goals is for every European to speak 2 languages in addition to their mother tongue. The best way to achieve this would be to introduce children to 2 foreign languages from an early age." (Multilingualism, n.d.) To achieve that goal the primary school should set a proper basis for lifetime learning. Learning a foreign language from the beginning of primary school should give children the chance to learn at least two foreign languages. The authors of the syllabus stress the importance of "frequent and intense exposure" to the language, consistency of language input, as well as the use. 6.

(18) of appropriate didactic techniques. (Semec, 2013; 5) Learning a foreign language at this age has many advantages. According to Semec (2013), children are curious and eager to learn and they like repetitions. Children gain a new perspective towards their mother tongue as well as their culture. Learning a language has a positive effect on learning and in general boosts the confidence of the learner. Some of the goals mentioned when learning a foreign language are listening and listening comprehension, and speaking and oral communication. Using songs can be beneficial for the development of these skills. One of the goals of listening is that the learners "get to know authentic texts in the foreign language (e.g. such as songs, counting rhymes, fairy tales, descriptions of events, processes, instructions) and that they develop intercultural and multilingual skills." (Semec, 2013; 8) Singing appropriate authentic songs helps to achieve one of the goals of developing speaking skills. The teaching content of English classes is based on the content of other subjects taught in 2nd and 3rd grade with the exception of mother tongue. I will mention the contents of the syllabus that may come handy in the next chapters of the thesis and therefore have something in common with songs, music, movement, listening or speaking. Many interesting topics to choose from are taken from the subject natural science (e.g. seasons, days, the clock, weather, human body, the importance of diverse food, habits, animals and their offspring, traffic and holidays). Numbers, geometrical shapes and mathematical operations find their grounds in mathematics, as drawings in arts, and dancing games in sports. The recommended contents from the subject music are (Semec, 2013; 11): Musical activities. Topics. Implementation of activities:. Predict the weather. - Singing,. Talk in animal language. - Playing.. Music riddles Change into instruments Make rattles and play with them. Creating music. Make music based on a fairy tale Make music for a greeting Make music for songs, music riddles and fairy tales. 7.

(19) Listening to music. Let the music talk Prepare a concert To search for animals in the music. Movement and dancing to music. Listen to the music and dance Singing games. As we can see above, there are many options to choose from if we want to use songs in an English class. We can use them with the goal of achieving movement or in form of dancing games. We can try to find songs with the vocabulary that suits the topics and talk about weather, seasons, human body or food for example. We can teach numbers through songs or sing and listen to music to practise listening and pronunciation. But whatever we do, we should not teach language in form of teaching grammar and rules. The syllabus stresses the importance of teaching content and not language. We find the proof of that in the standards of knowledge. (Semec, 2013) They stress that the goals for the development of listening skills are the recognition of the foreign language, the understanding of words, data and details, descriptions, instructions, songs, fairy tales and other texts. As for talking and communicating, the learners should name actual objects that surround them, respond to questions, communicate according to the patterns they know and besides other things the learners should sing. When we talk about developing reading skills, the learners should recognize the written form of known vocabulary, read and understand sentences and short texts. This confirms my assumption that songs contribute to the language learning process. They are mentioned in various chapters of the syllabus and can be used in different ways. They are an essential part of acquiring communicative competence, as they add to the improvement of listening and speaking skills. According to didactic recommendations, teachers should provide enough foreign language input and use the techniques for teaching younger children. As already mentioned above, the main goal is to teach content and to communicate. This should happen in a playful way. Teachers should take the diversity of learners into consideration and use the techniques of differentiation and individualization. The prior knowledge and the abilities of the learners may be very different. Information and communication technology can be a big help during the lessons, if the teacher. 8.

(20) uses it to support the goals of the lesson and helps them get to know the language and the culture. Since the syllabus has its basis on the goals of other subjects, that means the teacher has many opportunities for cross-curricular teaching. That way the things pupils learn in an English class only support the things they do during other lesson. The learners should not be overwhelmed with too much information, but should really be able to focus on the content and not the language. Another important aspect of language teaching that is mentioned in the syllabus is the assessment of young language learners. When assessing such young learners, teachers have to have in mind that some need more time to speak up and they might understand but are not able to express themselves yet. The syllabus contains many recommendations for the teacher. Besides the given goals, the topics and didactic recommendations, the teachers have the autonomy to choose the ways, methods and materials that they find best to achieve the goals. Some of the methods and forms of work to choose from are: class work, project work, pair and group work. For efficient oral practice, it is important to have enough oral practice. Stakanova and Tolstikhina (2014) agree that group and pair work ensure more oral practice than some other methods. In addition to these two, project work "is worth mentioning too: it gives every student a good chance to show their creative individuality and develops their team spirit at the same time." (p. 459) Pair work is easier to organize, but it is not recommended in classes with learners with discipline problems. Another thing we have to consider is the age of the learners. Some may not be ready for pair or project work. Learners at this age need simple instruction and guidance. However, with the right training, they are capable of doing simple projects as well.. 5.1.3. How young students learn Young students learn differently from older students. Their way of learning is more natural and spontaneous. Their learning strategies are still developing and they do not have the same experience and knowledge as some of the older students do.. 9.

(21) Through time, they learn how to learn languages effectively. However, for some students language learning is really hard. One must make an effort to understand, to repeat accurately, to manipulate, and to use the whole range of the target language in the conversation or written composition. Effort is required at every step and must be maintained over a long period of time. (Stakanova & Tolstikhina, 2014; 458). One way to overcome the stress that language learning may cause is with games. As Stakanova and Tolstikhina point out, children find games interesting and motivating. And these facts should be considered when teachers plan lessons for younger learners. I would add that songs, drama play and creative activities have a similar effect. The desire to play can be used in favor of the teacher. Not only, that children like to play, they are willing to play with words without thinking about the errors they might make. They are more likely to play with language than adults are. Children can be more effectively engaged through stories and games. Younger children are less likely to notice errors or correct them. In general, children are more holistic learners who need to use language for authentic communication in ESL classes. (Peck, 2001; 139). Besides using play as a form of teaching, Peck (2001) made a list of advice that she gathered from different authors on how to teach EFL to children (p. 140): - Focus on meaning, not correctness. - Focus on the value of the activity, not the value of the language. - Focus on collaboration and social development. - Provide a rich context, including movement, the senses, objects and pictures, and a variety of activities. - Teach ESL holistically, integrating the four skills. - Treat learners appropriately in light of their age and interests. - Treat language as a tool for children to use for their own social and academic ends. - Use language for authentic communication, not as an object of analysis.. 10.

(22) Another characteristic of children that should be considered is that "children need to move around more than adults do." (Peck, 2001; 145) That is why teachers should use gesture and movement as often as they can. A well-known method for doing so is the Total Physical Response (TPR). "In TPR, the teacher gives commands, models them, and gradually weans the student from watching the teacher's model. Soon students are able to carry out a variety of commands." (p. 145) There are many opportunities for such a method in the classroom. If the teacher shows and does what he tells, the children hear, see and eventually repeat after him. At first, the repetitions happen with simple commands such as stand up or sit down, later open the book, close the book, follow me, take the pencil. That can be applied in songs that involve a lot of movement or body parts, such as "Head and Shoulders, Knees and Toes". Besides that, the activities should be fun and engage learners. They have to be comfortable when they speak up and should not be afraid of making mistakes. And even if they do, there are different ways of correcting the mistake. The mistake should never become the center of attention. Peck (2001) listed a few strategies on what to do, when a teacher notices a mistake: "ignore the error, make a mental note, rephrase the sentence, rephrase and expand, or present a lesson to a group or the whole class later on." (p. 146) Early language learning has many benefits. Stakanova and Tolstikhina (2014) say "it is worth remembering that every child has his or her own inner incentive for learning foreign language and the teacher's task is to develop this motivation." (p. 456) Children form a solid base for learning languages, they have more time if they begin learning early, they have more chances to learn an additional foreign language later in the secondary school, they use their mother tongue better and besides all that, their thinking, imagination, perception and memory improve. Another advantage is their curiosity and that they do not fear the unknown. Children tend to use none-verbal communication often and begin communicating when they know only a few words. The authors know that the concentration span is shorter, that is why they suggest to use role plays, communicative methods and total physical response. Such methods involve the learners and help them to stay motivated. Uysal and Yavuz (2015) agree with the authors above that children are curious,. 11.

(23) enthusiastic, active and mostly eager to gain new experience. They studied literature on teaching preschool children aged 5-6 and came to the conclusion that teachers should use concrete materials or materials made together, and physical activities. Besides that, they point out: "studies show that early language acquisition is necessary to reach native like proficiency especially in pronunciation." (p. 22) Frydrychova Klimova (2013) also wrote about English in preschool and stressed that it is good to start as soon as possible and it is important to use appropriate materials and methods. As an example of songs as TPR activities she listed the songs "Head and Shoulders, Knees and Toes" and "If You are Happy and You Know It". Children learn differently from adults. Teachers should have that in mind when they prepare materials for EFL classes with younger children. Their attention span is shorter, that is why it is important to use materials that motivate them. The content should be interesting and have a connection to real life. The activities should not take too long and they should vary from more active that involve movement of the whole body, to less active, when they sit and color or match pictures with words. Some may allow them to be louder and others can be done quietly.. 5.1.4. Learning styles, strategies and multiple intelligences Learning consciously can be a big help for the learner. But to be able to do so, the learner has to know his strengths and his weaknesses. That way he can work on his flaws and use his strengths to overcome them. In order to do so, the learner must be aware of his learning styles and strategies, and should know which intelligences work in his favor. Oxford (1990) refers to learning styles as "the general approaches to learning a language"; and strategies as "the specific behaviors or thoughts learners use to enhance their language learning." (p. 1) She states: Learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning. Strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active,. self-directed. involvement,. which. 12. is. essential. for. developing.

(24) communicative competence. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence. (p. 1). She writes about two groups of strategies: direct strategies and indirect strategies. The direct strategies are memory strategies (remembering and retrieving information), cognitive strategies (understanding and producing the language) and compensation strategies (using the language despite knowledge gaps). The indirect strategies are: social strategies (learning with others), affective strategies (regulating emotions) and metacognitive strategies (coordinating the process). The use of different learning strategies depends on the learner's prior knowledge and experience in learning languages. Peterson (2001) differentiates between three profiles of students: - The beginning-level student that still has problems identifying each word when listening and does not understand most of the words. These "learners should be encouraged to tolerate ambiguity, to venture informed guesses, to use their realworld knowledge and analytical skills, and to enjoy their success in comprehension." (p. 91) - The intermediate-level learners, who "continue to use listening as an important source of language input to increase their vocabulary and structural understanding." (p. 94) - The advanced learner that needs more than just classroom talk. "These learners need to hear authentic texts with reduced forms, fast speech features, false starts, hesitations, errors, some nonstandard dialects, and a variety of different voices." (p. 95). Advanced learners use the language to learn more about "the content of other areas." (p. 97) The selection of strategies depends on experiences and "can also be influenced by factors other than proficiency level, it seems important to investigate some of this variables as well: learning style, personality type, previous educational experience, task constraints, and text type." (p. 99) Cohen (2003) made the difference between learning styles and strategies clear. Language learning styles are general approaches to language learning, while strategies are specific behaviors that learners select in their language learning and. 13.

(25) use. So, style differences would include being visual, auditory, or hands-on; being more abstract and intuitive (creative and speculative, non-sequential in thought) versus being more concrete and thinking in step-by-step sequence; being more global (viewing the big picture) versus more particular (detail-oriented, focused); being more synthesizing (assembling material in an integrative fashion) versus being more analyzing (performing logical analysis and contrast tasks); being more impulsive versus being more reflective; liking to keep all options open (tolerant of ambiguity, not concerned about deadlines) versus being closure-oriented (wanting clarity, organization, and rapid decisions); and being more extroverted versus being more introverted. (p. 279, 280). Language learning strategies are the ways learners select to improve and learn. These are more conscious. Cohen differentiates between cognitive (how to memorize or manipulate the structures), metacognitive (managing or supervising), affective (emotional) and social (cooperation) strategies. He stresses that [i]f learners have a well-functioning repertoire, then these strategies will facilitate the language learning process by promoting successful and efficient completion of language learning tasks, as well as by allowing the learners to develop their own individualized approaches to learning. (p. 280). He states that it is hard to say how learning styles influence learning strategies, since we have to take other factors into account as well. These are learner's age, aptitude and motivation, prior knowledge and experience, personality, gender and contextual variables (the influence of teacher and peers, in class or outside the classroom). He stresses that learners use different strategies in different ways for the same tasks. There is no formula which strategy to use for a certain kind of task, since learners have different learning styles. Therefore, it is important to educate learners about learning styles and strategies. This way, they are aware of how they are learning and how they can improve themselves, or as the author suggests: "so that they will be perhaps more aware of the specific kinds of challenges which both classroom and out-of-classroom tasks pose to them as language learners." (Cohen, 2003; 289) Tabatabaei and Mashayekhi (2013) researched the learning styles and the achievement of learners, but could not find a strong correlation between these two. However, they agree that students gain the most out of an environment where they. 14.

(26) may use the learning style they prefer. For the teachers it is necessary "to combine learning style with other individual differences, such as a learner's personality, language aptitude, and so on." (p. 252) Wong and Nunan (2011) tried to find the strategies and styles of effective language learners. They came to the conclusion that more effective students used the communicative style more and spent "significantly more time practicing English out of class and enjoyed learning English significantly more than less effective learners." (p. 155) Another author that did a research on learning styles and strategies is Weng Pei-Shi (2012). The author came to the conclusion that "learning styles did not have much influence on the learning strategy use," but there is a connection between learning styles and strategies, as "learners with auditory learning style use more social strategies than those with visual learning style." (p. 233) However, "learners with high language proficiency levels use more learning strategies than those with low language proficiency levels." (p. 233) Ehrman, Leaver and Oxford (2003) write that learners are different not only because of the learning styles and strategies they use, but because of the affective variables as well. The first two are often interrelated. In their opinion a strategy is useful under these conditions: (a) the strategy relates well to the L2 task at hand, (b) the strategy fits the particular student's learning style preferences to one degree or another, and (c) the student employs the strategy effectively and links it with other relevant strategies." (p. 315) Their advice for the teachers is to give the learners "the opportunity to learn in their preferred styles, rather than always outside of them, which can happen in the interests of keeping classrooms paced to the majority or to a standard curriculum." (p. 324) In her overview on language learning styles and strategies from 2003 she adds that a student can perform well when there is a harmony between him and the instructional methodology and materials.. 15.

(27) All in all, authors use different categories for language strategies and styles. I would like to mention the following learning strategies: cognitive, metagognitive, affective, social, memory-related and compensatory. Some styles according to Oxford (2003) are: - sensory preferences: visual, auditory, kinesthetic (movement), tacticle (touch) - personality: extroverted-introverted, intuitive-random, sensing-sequential, thinking-feeling, closure-oriented/judging-open/perceiving, - desired degree of generality: global or holistic, analytic, - biological: biorhythms, sustenance, location. Besides language styles and strategies, teachers should know more about multiple intelligences. Stakanova and Tolstikhina (2014) state that It is impossible to discuss cognitive concepts of language acquisition without reference to Howard Gardner and his noteworthy and influential study of multiple intelligences. /.../ Only a combination of differently-aimed activities guarantees success in developing pupils' mental abilities together with communicative skills. (p. 458). Howard Gardner (1991) differentiates between eight intelligence types: - linguisic, - logical-mathematical, - spatial, - bodily-kinesthetic, - musical, - interpersonal, - intrapersonal, - naturalist. Berman (2002) believes that the knowledge of the existence of multiple intelligences is one more reason why teachers should "teach multi-modally and cater for all the intelligence types in each of our lessons." (p. 3). 16.

(28) It is important that a teacher keeps up with the novelities of language learning approaches. "Language learning is one of the most challenging activities one has to deal with. Such lifelong learning process, obviously, involves the professional and educational guidance as well as personal systematic, conscious and attentive engagements in an L2." (Tabatabaei & Mashayekhi, 2013; p. 245) That is why teachers should keep reading and learning about new approaches to language teaching and learning. The findings of these authors let us come to the conclusion that there are many factors that a teacher should have in mind when he enters the classroom. As for one, he must be aware of the influence he has on the learners and their attitude towards learning the language he teaches. To be able to get the most out of learners, many authors suggest that the teacher gets to know the learning styles of the learners and tries to teach them as many learning strategies as posssible. That way, the learners get a solid basis for further education. If they are aware of their learning strategies, they know their weaknesses and their strenghts and can use them to get better. They learn more consciously and get a chance to become more efficient and self-confident about the things they are doing. However, there are still many other factors that we have to consider. We must not forget the age factor, gender, culture, motivation, different personalities and prior knowledge. All that influences the way we learn and see thing. Younger learners learn more spontaneously, contrary to older students that are capable of critical thinking and have more experiences in learning languages. Learners that are highly motivated or have a good prior knowledge learn faster and more easily. Different cultures value different abilities − learners in East Asia learn differently from those in Europe. Besides that, learners that are more open to new things and are aware of their learning styles can achieve their goals more easily and faster.. 17.

(29) 5.1.5. Listening and speaking skills When students learn languages they develop listening, speaking, writing and reading skills. The skills of speaking and listening are connected. There would not be much sense in speaking, if nobody listens and vice-versa. Morley (2001) lists four perspectives – four models of listening in language instruction. These are (p. 71, 72): 1. Listening and Repeating. The goal of the first model is "to pattern-match, to listen and imitate, to memorize." 2. Listening and Answering Comprehension Questions with the goal "to process discrete-point information; to listen and answer comprehension questions." 3. Task Listening and the goal "to process spoken discourse for functional purposes; to listen and do something with the information, that is, carry out real tasks using the information received." 4. Interactive Listening with the goal "to develop aural/oral skills in semiformal interactive academic communication; to develop critical listening, critical thinking, and effective speaking abilities." (Note: Interactive listening is because of its nature not applicable for young learners.) Another perspective that Morley stresses is that listening is not a passive act. She writes. about. listening. in. three. modes:. bidirectional,. unidirectional. and. autodirectional, and the students should get instruction and practice in bidirectional and unidirectional listening mode. I agree that it is important for students to get the chance to practise the bidirectional listening mode, that means to listen and speak. They should practise these two skills not only in role-play, but should be involved in activities where they can start a conversation or a debate. However, this is something that is more likely to be successful with older and more experienced students with more knowledge and a better vocabulary. We often forget the exposure to auditory input. That is the unidirectional listening mode. Students will be more successful in learning foreign languages when the exposure to the language they want to learn is greater. Nowadays, children in Slovenia are exposed to English through different media and the Internet, and they can benefit from it.. 18.

(30) Brown and Yule (1983a in Morley, 2001; 73) divide language functions into transactional or message oriented, and interactional or person oriented. Teachers should provide practice in both of them. Another thing teachers should consider when they plan their lesson is the bottom-up and top-down processing. In the first mentioned, students have to pay close attention to every detail and in the second, they have to have "a bank of prior knowledge and global expectations about language and the world," (Morley, 2001; 74) that helps them understand the message of the listening material. Ross's (2006) opinion on listening is that "a student with good listening comprehension skills will be able to participate more effectively in communicative situations." (p. 1) Therefore, it is important to provide students with guided practice to improve their listening skills. All things considered, learners learn a lot from listening. They should be exposed to auditory input through songs and other listening material (dialogue, conversation, debate and stories), and they should be involved in role plays, where they have to listen and respond or in group discussions as well. It is important to practise listening skills with tasks that vary from listen and answer to listen and use the new structure or vocabulary, or listen and express your opinion on something. The teacher should start with easier tasks and continue with more complex tasks. That way learners can improve with time.. 19.

(31) 5.2 THE USE OF SONGS 5.2.1. Why use songs According to Jensen (2009) "most classrooms have some type of ritual", which is a "highly predictable, prearranged activity". (p. 139) Singing a song or using a song as a warm-up, lead in activity or something the learners do at the end of the lesson could or should become a ritual. It fits some of Jensen's criteria for a class ritual, as it is easy to do, it is highly predictable, it includes and engages everyone and it mostly puts students in a positive emotional state. "Results show that music affects the emotions, respiratory system, heart rate, posture, and mental images of the listener." (p. 150) These change the mood of the student and consequently their behavior. "Music works marvelously to energize, align groups, induce relaxation, stimulate prior experiences, develop rapport, set the theme or the tone for the day, stimulate the mind, facilitate fun, and inspire." (p. 150) Some advantages of using music in the classroom are (p. 150): It - Embeds the learning faster, on a deeper level, like the "Alphabet Song"; - Provides relaxation after stress and discouragement; - Collects and brings the whole group together; - Motivates the group to get up and get going; - Builds rapport and encourages bonding; - Energizes and brings new life to the group; - Appeals to particular cultural values of the group; - Comforts the soul during painful times; - Lets students have fun when they need a change of mind-set; - Boosts achievement by activating the thinking portion of the brain; - Harmonizes situations when the group seems to be on edge; - Calms down hyper active students; - Stimulates the right-brain hemisphere by activating more of the brain; - Increases attentiveness and concentration; - Stimulates and focuses creativity; - Takes some pressure off the teacher;. 20.

(32) - Creates sound curtains to isolate classes or groups from distracting noise. Peck's (2001) reasons for the use of songs are based on the fact that children like to play and they like to play with language as well. They enjoy rhythmic and repetitive language more than adults do. They play with the intonation of a sentence, and most are willing to sing. They enjoy repeating the word or an utterance in a play situation. /.../ Given children's greater ability to play with language, teachers need to use songs, poems, and chants more than they would with adults. /…/ They build up a repertoire of songs or chants and delight in reciting them, or playfully altering them. (p. 140, 141). Millington (2011) sees the flexibility of songs as an advantage for their use in the classroom. They can be "used for a number of purposes and there are many reasons why songs can be considered a valuable pedagogical tool." (p. 134) The author agrees with Peck that they can be fun. Jensen (2009) suggests another way a song can be used, which is as an energizer. These are "short, simple, high-energy activities". (p. 153) Edgar A. Reina Arévalo (2010), a professor at a university in Tunja, Colombia researched the use of songs as a tool to work on listening and culture in EFL classes. He did the research with students of different undergraduate programs. He came to the conclusion that "songs are the most suitable type of authentic material to develop listening comprehension." (p. 130) He also discovered that when he used songs, students were more motivated and paid more attention in class. In his experience learning through songs is more attractive to students, since "songs are the product of a culture and share values, commitment, responsibility, love, history, traditions, customs, and specific characteristics of spoken language." (p. 130) An additional benefit is that songs are easily available and they present new vocabulary and expressions in a meaningful context. Through songs students become familiar with the pronunciation of native speakers, and they also provide topics for discussion. Most students enjoy listening and analyzing songs because of the fact that music is everywhere and they are always in contact with music. (p. 130, 131). 21.

(33) The language of songs is usually simple and full of repetitions. The repetitions in the songs work the same way as pattern drills, but the learners do not realize that. When they listen to songs, they learn a new language more effectively. At the same time, they learn about culture, since most songs talk about social issues. Orlova (2003) sees the potential of songs and music "as a springboard to students' creativity". (p. 1) She used songs in an intermediate class when she taught speaking to prospective EFL teachers. Her reasons for teaching songs not only to young learners are (p. 1): •. As a cultural phenomenon, songs can introduce students to the musical and cultural patterns typical for the target language community.. •. Songs belong to a synthetic genre, which includes both lyrics, and music and these two constituents may be used as a good incentive for speaking English in class.. •. Songs can effectively contribute to the students' development of esthetic appreciation, since they may help them shape their artistic tastes in formulating a critical evaluation of the songs they listen to and discuss.. •. Prospective teachers of English, in order to be able to use songs effectively in their own teaching in the future, should themselves be exposed to them in the context of a teacher training program.. Schoepp (2001) focused on reasons for using songs and their effectiveness as a learning tool. He states that the literature about the use of songs is mostly based on teacher experience and not theory. However, one can find the theoretical base for the teachers' motives. He focused on three reasons for the use of songs. The first is the affective reason. Songs provide a positive atmosphere and therefore promote language learning. Then there is the cognitive reason. That is the way they encourage developing automaticity. And the third is the linguistic reason, as they contain genuine language. Saricoban and Metin (2000) wrote about the use of songs when teaching grammar. They said "in order to make a grammar lesson effective, beneficial, and interesting a. 22.

(34) teacher should use some well-developed and fascinating techniques in the classroom" (p. 1), one of them being the use of songs. Cullen (1998) agrees that songs can be used as a teaching tool. In his experience students "hold on views about music and students who are usually quiet can become very talkative when discussing it." (p. 1) Fonesco-Mora (2000) wrote: "music seems to leave a particularly deep trace in our memories" (p. 150). That explains why we memorize songs very early. As stated before, music relaxes the atmosphere and is an efficient tool for improving pronunciation and listening. It influences the language acquisition level in a positive way. Another reason for the use of songs is the theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner). Auditory learners prefer the melodic approach, since they like listening activities. Fonesca-Mora suggests that teachers should offer different activities to "reach the different types of learners." (p. 146) She compared music and language and came to the conclusion that both carry a message, have intrinsic features in common (volume, pitch, stress, tone, rhythm, intonation) and we learn from them through exposure. Cakir (1999) agrees with the authors mentioned above and adds that songs are an essential part of the curriculum. They can be used for teaching stress and intonation patterns. Students enjoy using songs. They are more motivated and find it interesting. They memorize songs more easily. Besides that, songs can be used in various ways and for different goals. They contain words that are frequently used and often repeated. Children show who they really are when they play or sing. A song is a very strong means of triggering emotions which contributes to socialization (a song is collective), appeals to the ear (one listens to himself while singing), engenders pleasure (through reproduction of a sound, enjoyment of the rhythm) and it helps to develop an aesthetic taste (expressing feelings and sentiments). (Cakir, 1999; 1-2). At the same time, he suggests that parents should not worry if students say that they play or sing in the class. He stresses the importance of receiving 'comprehensible. 23.

(35) input' (according to Krashen's input hypothesis) that should be enjoyable and easy to understand. He sees songs as great material in that manner. "They are comprehensible, enjoyable, authentic and full of language we need in real life. They are part of our lives and they are around us. All we need to do is share them with our students with a little planning before we enter the class." (p. 5) Şevik (2011) did a research on teacher views on the use of songs in the classroom. 52 Turkish EFL primary school teachers answered a questionnaire about their beliefs, attitudes and thoughts about using songs in teaching English to young learners. He came to the conclusion that the majority of teachers "believe that songs should be an essential part of the EFL teaching curriculum for YLs (94.2%); that songs are very important in developing the listening skills of YLs (94.2%); that songs are fun and full of pedagogical value (90.4%); and that songs present many opportunities for YLs to show their skills in many language areas (82.7%)." (p. 1034) At the same time, they admit that they do not have enough resources and find it difficult to find appropriate songs for every topic. Besides that, they find it difficult to measure students' success after teaching a song. But overall, all participating teachers believe "that songs are a highly motivating and entertaining way of teaching English, 94.2% believe that songs accelerate the memorization of vocabulary, 86.6% believe that songs provide a large amount of repetition and 80.8% believe that using songs can lower student anxiety." (p. 1034) Saricoban and Metin (2000) list some of the advantages of using songs in the classroom. They say they are "highly memorable and motivating", are "a powerful subculture" and they are a means through which "the teacher can meet the challenges of the teenage needs in the classroom." (p. 1) Another advantage of children's songs is that they are very adaptable. Millington (2011) showed how the song "The Wheels on the Bus" can be used to learn or practice vocabulary on sea creatures. He changed the vocabulary (e.g. The fish in the sea goes swim, swim, swim). He wanted to make clear that with a little imagination the teacher can choose the language he wants to teach and adapt the song to support that.. 24.

(36) What is more, every teacher can use this approach. As in Failoni (1993): "Music can be integrated into classroom activities, without assuming that a teacher or student can compose or perform music." (p. 97) It can be used to develop or improve each of the four skills, grammar, and vocabulary for students of different ages and levels. Besides that, students like to listen to popular songs. However, Failoni warns that teachers should select them with caution. They are constantly changing and a teacher should not use only popular and familiar songs, but a variety of different songs. Through songs, teachers "have an opportunity to introduce the cultural context of the song." (p. 102) Children learn cultural differences and get the chance to see how people in other cultures live. There is not much to add to the authors cited above. Music obviously has a very positive influence on language learning. It helps to ease the atmosphere in the classroom and build vocabulary. Songs are easy to memorize and they share cultural aspects. They offer various auditory inputs and have a motivating effect on the students. Nonetheless, teachers should set clear criteria for the choice of the songs, so they can find songs that support the goals of the syllabus in the best possible way.. 5.2.2. Criteria for the choice of songs The previous chapters showed the positive influence of songs on language learning. In order to use the songs effectively in the classroom, a teacher should develop the criteria that suit him and the students. Morley (2001) suggests that "in order to get learners' attention, to keep them actively and purposefully engaged in the task at hand, and to maximize the effectiveness of listening/language-learning experiences, three materials development principles are respected: relevance, transferability/applicability, and task orientation." (p. 77) The content and the outcome should be relevant for the student. At the same time the student should be able to transfer the things he learns into real-life situations. Therefore the classes should be task-oriented.. 25.

(37) I believe that task-oriented lessons are easy to apply in lessons with younger students. Tasks like listen and perform can be applied at the beginning of learning, when students still have limited vocabulary. They learn words faster when they move, show or do something with the words. Morley (p. 79-82) writes about six different categories of outcomes: 1. Listening and performing actions and operations; 2. Listening and transferring information (spoken-to-written or spoken- tospoken); 3. Listening and solving problems (games and puzzles); 4. Listening, evaluating and manipulating information; 5. Interactive listening-and-speaking: negotiating meaning through questioning/answering routines (product and process); 6. Listening for enjoyment, pleasure, and sociability ("listening to songs, stories, plays, poems, jokes, anecdotes, or, as suggested by Ur, teacherchat"). (Morley, p. 82) Most of the categories can be easily applied in classes of EFL for younger learners. They can listen and reply, listen and draw something, listen and point, listen and identify a person, an animal or an object, listen and carry out an instruction. At the same time they can enjoy learning. Peck's view on the choice of the song is that the teacher should like it. She says that "your feelings about a song will carry over to the children, so it is important to consider your own likes and dislikes." (p. 142) In conclusion of Arévalo's (2010) action research, he stresses how important it is to choose the correct material. When teachers search for appropriate songs, they should [c]onsider learning purposes as well as the applicability and adaptability of the chosen texts. In order to do systematic lesson planning, we should pre-establish goals carefully stated for each lesson plan; design careful listening tasks from the simplest to the most complex; ask for an active, overt students’ participation; and have a teaching not testing purpose when listening. Moreover, it is necessary to develop listening for gist, selective listening, and listening for predictions which are the relevant skills when developing listening comprehension. (p. 131). 26.

(38) When you try to find an appropriate song, Saricoban and Metin (2000) suggest these to take into consideration: "the level of the students, the interests and the age of the learners, the grammar point to be studied, and the song itself. /.../ Songs offer a change from routine classroom activities. They are precious resources to develop student's abilities in listening, speaking, reading, and writing." (p. 1) Şevik (2011) agrees that "while selecting a song, the teacher should take the age, interests of the learners and the language being used in the song into consideration." (p. 1029) Jensen (2009) suggests considering the tempo of the song, since it affects the heart rate and breathing. Besides that, the teacher should match the specific music to the teachable task. To summarize, here are some points a teacher should take into consideration when he decides which song to choose: - Relevance: The content should be relevant. (Morley, 2001; 77) - Transferability/Applicability: One should be able to apply the knowledge they gained through the song into other areas (e.g.: the vocabulary or sentence structures). - Adaptability: The teacher should be able to change the song according to his needs. The teacher can change or add vocabulary in order to achieve a certain goal (e.g.: to train specific vocabulary). - Task orientation: The teacher should know what to do with the song. He should know what the learners gain if they listen to it and how to encourage that with goaloriented tasks. - Language being used: The vocabulary, grammar and sentence structures should be fitting the knowledge, the needs and the competences of the learners. They should motivate the learner to learn more and to use that knowledge in real life. - Likability/Interests: The teacher and the learners should like the song and enjoy the music.. 27.

(39) 5.2.3. How to use songs Songs can be used in different ways. They can be used in the beginning phase of the lesson for introducing the new topic, as a pre-reading activity, to activate the knowledge about a topic or as a source of new information. At the same time, they can be used to gain new vocabulary or grammar, to practise pronunciation, listening or reading. Şevik (2011) writes that "songs may both be used for the presentation or practice phase of the grammar lessons as well. They may encourage extensive and intensive listening, and inspire creativity and use of imagination in a relaxed classroom atmosphere." (p. 1029) Peck (2001) suggests starting with the context and the vocabulary of the poem, chant or song. Then, after listening, the students can repeat, recite and sing. She suggests the following sequence of steps: First, children get to know the vocabulary and the content with the help of pictures and objects. Second, the teacher recites or sings the poem or song. Third, the teacher recites one line after the other and the students repeat after each line. Then they can recite the whole poem or song. The teacher and the students take turns in reciting or singing parts of the poem or song. The class is divided in two groups and they take turns. The next step is to practise that every day for about five minutes. And the last two steps are making costumes and props and finally, present the song to other children. Orlova (2003) suggests the following model of speech development through songs: •. Preparatory: introductory talk and activities aimed at vocabulary development.. •. Forming (to form speaking skills) Listening and discussing songs; 7-step sequence: pre-listening tasks,. listening to the song, answers to the pre-listening tasks, post-listening tasks, presentation of the text of the song (optional), second listening, song discussion. •. Developing (to further develop speaking skills): discussing different problematic issues and music genres, tasks for using songs in English. 28.

(40) language teaching. (p. 2-5) Cullen (1998) describes how to use songs beyond the meaning of the song. He lists three main aspects: music, lyrics and other meanings. Music can be used for: •. Internal. structure. (melody,. harmony,. rhythm,. theme. development,. instrumentation, dynamics, etc.). •. Expression of emotions. Music can effect us emotionally in many different ways. Imitation of the human voice (the tone of voice) Imitation of human movement Conventional meaning By induction. •. Representation of external meanings. Music as a reflection of society and culture Association with personal experiences Association with advertisements, movies, etc. Program music Sound effects. Lyrics can be used for: •. Subject matter. •. Meanings of song vocabulary. •. Poetic structure. •. Ambiguous people and places in songs. •. Songs as a reflection of culture. Other meanings of the use of songs: •. Meanings created in performance. •. Meanings created in pop videos. •. Meanings created in packaging (p. 1-3). When a teacher plans a lesson, it is recommended to set the scene before the listening in order to make listening a positive experience for them. That is why the pre-. 29.

(41) listening stage is an important part of the lesson. It is important that students activate their prior knowledge. The teacher can use different materials to do that. He can use objects, pictures, ask questions and encourage students to make predictions. The prelistening stage should develop learners' curiosity about how all the phrases and words they have heard will fit together in a context. /.../ If objects and actions are demonstrated clearly and if the message contains a clear dramatic structure, even beginners will soon begin to perceive patterns of sound. Vocabulary from the prelistening phase will stand out especially clearly from the rest of the speech stream, providing listeners a pleasant experience of recognition. (Peterson, 2001; 92). As we can see, songs can be used for different reasons and in different forms. To gain the most of it, the teacher should try to find songs that fit the syllabus. That way, he can use songs in all stages of the lesson, be it for introducing a new topic or activating prior knowledge, or to use the lyrics to introduce new vocabulary, grammar or sentence structures. He can prepare exercises for revision or practicing, or use songs to relax the atmosphere and move around the class. Anyway, the important thing is, that the teacher sets goals and finds appropriate ways to achieve them through songs.. 5.2.4. Authentic materials in class Songs can carry many massages and are mostly written by native speakers and for native speakers. The language, vocabulary and pronunciation in the songs is authentic. The lyrics are mostly easy to understand and with many repetitions, but they can be more complex and offer different interpretations. Either way, they can contain information about the culture and the time. That is why they serve as good authentic material and teachers should use them as often as they can. Songs are one of the most enchanting and culturally rich resources that can easily be used in language classrooms. /.../ They are the means through which cultural themes are presented effectively. Since they provide authentic texts, they are motivating. (Saricoban & Metin, 2000; 1). 30.

(42) There are several definitions of authenticity in materials. Porter and Roberts (1987) state that authentic texts are those "instances of spoken language which were not initiated for the purpose of teaching ... not intended for non-native learners" (as cited in Peterson, 2001; 176). Rogers and Medley (1988) use the term authentic to refer to all language samples which "reflect a naturalness of form, and an appropriateness of cultural and situational context that would be found in the language as used by native speakers". (as cited in Peterson, 2001; 95) Schoepp (2001) writes that the exposure to authentic English is an important factor in promoting language learning. It relates directly to both, the affective filter and automaticity. If students are exposed to songs which they enjoy, more learning is likely to occur since they may seek out the music outside of the classroom. (p. 3). Failoni (1993) sees the use of music as an approach to study culture: "Music provides an interesting miror of the history, literature, and culture of a country, which can be seen in song texts, and in musical style." (p. 97) As shown above, many authors stress the positive influence of authentic material. Learning with the help of such material has a strong influence on the way children experience the new language. Through authentic songs they get the chance to learn more than just vocabulary. They get information about the culture and they connect with the real world. That means that they do not learn only classroom language or language adapted to the classroom situation, but they learn phrases which native speakers use. They get to know interruptions, double meanings and informal language. They improve their communication skills and their motivation for language learning and language use grows.. 5.2.5. The advantages and disadvantages of authentic materials Considering the facts listed above, we now know that authentic material in the classroom is a necessity. But at the same time, teachers should use it with caution. 31.

(43) and as suggested in the previous chapters, follow the criteria that help them find appropriate material. One of the disadvantages is that some songs may contain vocabulary that is not in use anymore. Then again, as Peck (2001) states, children often sense that: "In singing an unaltered folk song, children can pick up language, vocabulary, and culture in combination. Students usually sense that the archaic vocabulary is not appropriate in their own speech." (p. 143) Another problem may occur if the pace is too fast or the pronunciation is not clear enough. Furthermore, the language may be too hard to understand. This happens if the students do not know most of the vocabulary and cannot grasp the content or the main idea. Additionally, the grammar may be too complex. On the other hand, songs are mostly written by native speakers or/and for native speakers. They talk about real life, real problems and real situations. That is why the language itself is authentic and reflects the reality. Ross (2006) writes that through authentic texts students "learn to comprehend double meanings, predict meaning, make allowances for performance errors committed by other speakers, deal with interruptions, and so on." That way they "become more communicatively competent." (p. 3) The language in the songs carries cultural information as well. Teachers can use them to teach cultural content and to compare not only the languages, but cultural aspects as well. At the same time, if the pronunciation is different, they can talk about different dialects. They can compare the words they hear with the written lyrics. All things considered, every thing has its positive and negative effects. Yet, in this case, the disadvantages can be eliminated through good planning of the lesson. Some of them may even be made to advantages, as the examples above suggest.. 32.

(44) 5.2.6. How to prepare authentic materials for the use in the classroom When a teacher considers using authentic materials in the classroom, he has to be aware of how important the right selection of a song is. Nowadays it is really easy to find authentic materials in form of songs. There are many Internet sites that offer lyrics, or melody and lyrics of songs. When the teacher finds the song, he should use the criteria listed above, to choose a song that suits the goals of the lesson. With that in mind, the selection narrows down to a few songs. After that, the teacher listens to the song and reads the lyrics. He decides if the song fits the topic, age and language level of the learners. Then, he begins to plan the lesson. He decides on the purpose, goals and stages of the lesson. Besides that, he decides on the methods. If necessary, he can adjust the lyrics or add lines to practise certain vocabulary. He can print the lyrics, to show them to the learners or he can prepare activities to activate prior knowledge. In either case, he should set straight goals and think of ways how to achieve them.. 33.