ٍٝاهك هومٌّ خ١ضؾجٌا ًئبٍوٌا ُ١١مر حهبّزٍا
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تٌبٌٞا خفو٦ّث لأّر دبٔب١ث : لاٚا : تٌبٌٞا ٍُا ٠فبؾٌا لج٥ كّٛؾِ ػٛزفٌا ٛثا بٙٔ
: خ١ٍو ةاك٢ا
: ٜٛزٌَّا / خلوفٌا خ١ٔبضٌا
ةبَزٔا /
: خج٦ٌْا ب١فاوغع
: هومٌّا ٍُا ٖٓٛٔ
خ١فاوغع
ٗ٠ي١ٍغٔا خغٍث خ١٦١جٝ
: هومٌّا كٛو
226
: هومٌّا مبزٍا وٍ يبّو /ك
ِ٠ٚهك ٝعٚ
[email protected]: تٌبٌٍٟٞٔٚوزىٌلإا ل٠وجٌا atmosphere: خ١ضؾجٌا خٌبٍوٌا ْإٛ٥
ٓ١ٕؾزٌّّا خٕغٌ خفو٦ّث لأّر دبٔب١ث : ب١ٔبص ب١ٍو َا ب١ئيع خٙثبْزِ خِلمٌّا خٌبٍوٌا ً٘
⃝ ُ٦ٔ
⃝ لا
زاجم ريغ ربتعيو يثحبلا عورشملا مييقت متي لا معنب ةباجلاا ةلاح ىف
ٟضؾجٌا ٣ٚوٌّْا ُ١١مر
ُ١١مزٌا ٝجٌَٕا ْىٌٛا مييقتلا رصانع َ َب٦ٌا ًىٌْا
خ١ضؾجٌا خٌبٍوٌٍ 1 خثٌٍّٛٞا خ١ٍّ٦ٌا دبجٍٞزٌّا ك١مؾر 2 خ١ٍّ٦ٌا هكبٌّٖاٚ ٤عاوٌّا وون٠ 3 ل١ع خثبزىٌا ةٍٍٛاٚ خ٠ٛغٌٍا خغب١ٌٖا 4 ؼعبٔ
⃝ تٍاه
⃝ /111
ٝئبٌٕٙا ُ١١مزٌا خغ١زٔ
: ُ١١مزٌا خٕغٌ ٤١لٛر 1 –
2 –
3 -
4 –
5 -
Introduction
An atmosphere (from Ancient Greek ἀτμός (atmos), meaning 'vapour', and σσαῖρα
(sphaira), meaning 'ball' or 'sphere'[1][2]) is a layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a planet or other material body, that is held in place by the gravity of that body. An
atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low.
The atmosphere of Earth is composed of nitrogen (about 78%), oxygen (about 21%), argon (about 0.9%), carbon dioxide (0.04%) and other gases in trace amounts.[3] Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration; nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids; and carbon dioxide is used by plants, algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis. The atmosphere helps to protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation, solar wind and cosmic rays. The current composition of the Earth's atmosphere is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living
organisms.
ةمدقملا خّ٠لمٌا خ١ٔبٔٛ١ٌا ِٓ( ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ٚ ، "هبقث" ٟٕ٦٠ ٞنٌا ، ٚأ خمجٝ ٓ٥ حهبج٥ "حوو" ٚأ "حوو" ٟٕ٦ر ٟزٌا ، ِٓ .لَغٌا هٌم حهٛٞف ً٦فث بٙٔبىِ ٟف ذجضر ٜوفأ خ٠كبِ حكبِ ٞأ ٚأ توٛىث خٞ١ؾٌّا داىبغٌا دبمجٝ ِٓ خ٥ّٛغِ
فقِٕ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا حهاوؽ خعهكٚ خ١ٌب٥ بٌٙ ٗو٦ز٠ ٟزٌا خ١ثمبغٌا ذٔبو امإ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ٠فزؾ٠ ْأ ؼعوٌّا
خٚ .
ٌٟاٛؽ( ٓ١عٚوز١ٌٕا ِٓ ٗهلأٌ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ْٛىز٠ 87
ٌٟاٛؽ( ٓ١غَولأاٚ )٪
21 ٌٟاٛؽ( ْٛعهلأاٚ )٪
1.0 )٪
( ْٛثوىٌا ل١َوأ ٟٔبصٚ
1.14 [ .خٍ١ئٙ دب١ّىث ٜوفلأا داىبغٌاٚ )٪
3 دبٕئبىٌا ُ٢٦ِ ًجل ِٓ ٓ١غَولأا َالقزٍا ُز٠ ]
ب٠و١زىجٌا ك٠وٝ ٓ٥ ٓ١عٚوز١ٌٕا ذ١جضر ُز٠ .ٌفٕزٌٍ خ١ؾٌا دال١رٛ١ٍوٛ١ٌٕا ءبٕث ٟف خِلقزٌَّا ب١ِٔٛلأا طبزٔلإ قوجٌاٚ
ً١ضّزٌا خ١ٍّ٦ٌ ءبلهيٌا ب٠و١زىجٌاٚ تٌبؾٌٞاٚ دبربجٌٕا ًجل ِٓ َلقزَ٠ ْٛثوىٌا ل١َوأ ٟٔبصٚ ؛ خ١ٕ١ِلأا ٗبّؽلأاٚ
فٕجٌا قٛف خ٦ّلأا ٓ٥ ظربٌٕا ٟٕ١غٌا هوٌٚا ِٓ خ١ؾٌا دبٕئبىٌا خ٠بّؽ ٍٝ٥ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ل٥بَ٠ .ٟئٌٛٚا خ١غَ
ِٓ ٓ١ٌَٕا داهب١ٍِ طبزٔ ٛ٘ ٗهلأٌ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌٍ ٌٟبؾٌا ٓ٠ٛىزٌا ْإ .خ١ٔٛىٌا خ٦ّلأاٚ خ١ٌَّْا ػب٠وٌاٚ خ١ٌَّْا خ١ؾٌا دبٕئبىٌا خٍٞاٛث ُ٠لمٌا ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌٍ ٞٛ١ؾٌا ٟئب١ّ١ىٌا ً٠ل٦زٌا
.
subject
Surface gravity differs significantly among the planets. For example, the large
gravitational force of the giant planet Jupiter retains light gases such as hydrogen and helium that escape from objects with lower gravity. Secondly, the distance from the Sun determines the energy available to heat atmospheric gas to the point where some fraction of its molecules' thermal motion exceed the planet's escape velocity, allowing those to escape a planet's gravitational grasp. Thus, distant and cold Titan, Triton, and Pluto are able to retain their atmospheres despite their relatively low gravities.
Since a collection of gas molecules may be moving at a wide range of velocities, there will always be some fast enough to produce a slow leakage of gas into space. Lighter molecules move faster than heavier ones with the same thermal kinetic energy, and so gases of low molecular weight are lost more rapidly than those of high molecular weight.
It is thought that Venus and Mars may have lost much of their water when, after being photodissociated into hydrogen and oxygen by solar ultraviolet radiation, the hydrogen escaped. Earth's magnetic field helps to prevent this, as, normally, the solar wind would greatly enhance the escape of hydrogen. However, over the past 3 billion years Earth may have lost gases through the magnetic polar regions due to auroral activity, including a net 2% of its atmospheric oxygen.[4] The net effect, taking the most important escape processes into account, is that an intrinsic magnetic field does not protect a planet from atmospheric escape and that for some magnetizations the presence of a magnetic field works to increase the escape rate.[5]
ٞوزٌّْا توٛىٌ حو١جىٌا خ١ثمبغٌا حٛل ٠فزؾر ، يبضٌّا ً١جٍ ٍٝ٥ .تواٛىٌا ٓ١ث و١جو ًىْث خ١ؾٌَٞا خ١ثمبغٌا فٍزقر
ٌٙا ًضِ خف١فف داىبغث قلاّ٦ٌا ِٓ خفبٌَّا كلؾر ، بً١ٔبص .خٚفقٌّٕا خ١ثمبغٌا دام َبَعلأا ِٓ ةوٙر ٟزٌا َٛ١ٍ١ٌٙاٚ ٓ١عٚهل١
ٗربئ٠يغٌ خ٠هاوؾٌا خووؾٌا ِٓ و١غٕ ءيع بٙ١ف ىٚبغز٠ ٟزٌا خٞمٌٕا ٌٝإ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ىبغ ٓ١قَزٌ خؽبزٌّا خلبٌٞا ٌٌّْا ىٌٍ خ١ثمبغٌا خٚجل ِٓ ةٚوٌٙبث ٌٗ ؼَّ٠ بِّ ، توٛىٌا ةٚو٘ خ٥وٍ
ٓ٠ل١٦جٌا ٛرٍٛثٚ ، ْٛز٠ور ، ْبز١ر ْئف ، انى٘ٚ .توٛ
بً١جَٔ خٚفقٌّٕا ُٙز١ثمبع ِٓ ُغوٌا ٍٝ٥ ٞٛغٌا ُٙفلاغث ٟبفزؽلاا ٍٝ٥ ْٚهكبل ٓ٠كهبجٌاٚ.
خ١فبىٌا خ٥وٌَا ٘٦ث بًّئاك نبٕ٘ ْٛى١ٍ ، دب٥وٌَا ِٓ ٤ٍاٚ قبٞٔ ٟف نوؾزر لل ىبغٌا دبئ٠يع ِٓ خ٥ّٛغِ ْلأ اًو٢ٔ
ٌ ءٟٞث ةوَر طبزٔلإ خلبٌٞا ٌفٕث ًمصلأا دبئ٠يغٌا ِٓ ٣وٍأ ًىْث بٔىٚ ففلأا دبئ٠يغٌا نوؾزر .ءبٚفٌا ٟف ىبغٍ
ْىٌٛا دام خ١ئ٠يغٌا هٍر ِٓ وجوأ خ٥وَث ٘فقٌّٕا ٟئ٠يغٌا ْىٌٛا دام داىبغٌا لمفر ٌٟبزٌبثٚ ، خ٠هاوؾٌا خ١ووؾٌا ب١ِ ِٓ و١ضىٌا المف بّثه ـ٠وٌّاٚ حو٘يٌا توٛو ْأ لمز٦ُ٠ .ٌٟب٦ٌا ٟئ٠يغٌا بً١ئٛٙ بٍّٖٙف ل٦ث ٓ١عٚهل١ٌٙا ةو٘ بِلٕ٥ بّٙ٘
ْلأ ، هٌم ٤ِٕ ٍٝ٥ ٗهلأٌ َٟ١ٝبٕغٌّا يبغٌّا ل٥بَ٠ .خ١غَفٕجٌا قٛف خ١ٌَّْا خ٦ّلأا خٍٞاٛث ٓ١غَوأٚ ٓ١عٚهل١٘ ٟف كٝبٌّٕا وج٥ داىبغٌا ٗهلأا دلمف بّثه ، هٌم ٤ِٚ .ٓ١عٚهل١ٌٙا ةٚو٘ و١جو ًىْث ىي٦ر بِ حكب٥ خ١ٌَّْا ػب٠وٌا
١جٞمٌا يلاف خ١َ١ٝبٕغٌّا خ 3
ٟفبٕ هٌم ٟف بّث ، ٟمفٌْا ٛبٌْٕا تجَث خ١ٙبٌّا خٍٕ داهب١ٍِ
2 ٞٛغٌا ٓ١غَولأا ِٓ ٪
[ .بٙث ٓبقٌا 4
َٟ١ٝبٕغٌّا يبغٌّا ْأ ٛ٘ ، هبجز٥لاا ٟف خ١ّ٘أ وضولأا ةٚوٌٙا دب١ٍّ٥ نفأ ٤ِ ، ٟفبٌٖا و١صأزٌا ]
ْأٚ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ٟف ةٚوٌٙا ِٓ بًجوٛو ّٟؾ٠ لا ٞو٘ٛغٌا ٍٝ٥ ًّ٦٠ دبَ١ٕٞغٌّا ٘٦ث ٟف َٟ١ٝبٕغِ يبغِ كٛعٚ
[ .ةٚوٌٙا يل٦ِ حكب٠ى
5 ]
Earth's Atmosphere
The layered structure of Earth's atmosphere is visible in this sunset view from the International Space Station.
Credit: Image Science & Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center Earth's atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds our home planet. Besides
providing us with something to breathe, the atmosphere helps make life on Earth possible in several ways. It shields us from most of the harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun, warms the surface of our planet by about 33° C (59° F) via the greenhouse
ٗهلأٌ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا خ١ٌٚلٌا ءبٚفٌا خٞؾِ ِٓ ان٘ ةٚوغٌا لِْٙ ٟف ٗهلأٌ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا دبمجٝ خ١ٕث وٙ٢ر.
ءبٚفٌٍ َْٛٔٛع بٍبٔ يووِ ، ً١ٍؾزٌاٚ حهٌٖٛا ٍَٛ٥ وجزقِ :ْبّزئلاا ل٥بَ٠ ، َٗفٕزٔ ءْٟث بٔل٠ٚير ٌٝإ خفبٙلإبث .بٕجوٛىث خٞ١ؾٌّا داىبغٌا ِٓ ظ٠يِ ٛ٘ ٗهلأٌ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ٗهلأا ٍٝ٥ حب١ؾٌا ً٦ع ٟف ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا
ٌٟاٛؾث بٕجوٛو ؼٍٞ ٓقَ٠ٚ ، ٌٌّْا ِٓ خِكبمٌا حهبٌٚا خ١غَفٕجٌا قٛف خ٦ّلأا ُ٢٦ِ ِٓ بٕ١ّؾ٠ ٗٔإ .قوٝ حل٦ث خٕىِّ
33 ٠ٛئِ خعهك ( خ
50 خعهك
ئ١فلٌا وج٥ )ذ٠بٙٔوٙف
Layers of Earth's Atmosphere
The atmosphere grows thinner (less dense and lower in pressure) as one moves upward from Earth's surface. It gradually gives way to the vacuum of outer space. There is no precise "top" of the atmosphere. Air becomes so thin at altitudes between 100 and 120 km (62-75 miles) up that for many purposes that range of heights can be considered the boundary between the atmosphere and space. However, there are very thin but
measurable traces of atmospheric gases hundreds of kilometers/miles above Earth's surface.
There are several different regions or layers in the atmosphere. Each has characteristic temperatures, pressures, and phenomena. We live in the troposphere, the lowest layer, where most clouds are found and almost all weather occurs. Some jet aircraft fly in the next higher layer, the stratosphere, which contains the jet streams and the ozone layer.
Higher still are the mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere. Learn about the layers of Earth's Atmosphere:
The different layers of the atmosphere
The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on its temperature, as shown in the figure below. These layers are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere. A further region, beginning about 500 km above the Earth's surface, is called the exosphere.
ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا دبمجٝ
ٗهلأٌ
يبغٌّا ؼَفر بٙٔإ .ٗهلأا ؼٍٞ ِٓ اًكٛ٦ٕ ءوٌّا نوؾز٠ بِلٕ٥ )بًٞغٙ ًلأٚ خفبضو ًلأ( قهأ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ّٕٛ٠ ػٚاوزر دب٥بفرها ٍٝ٥ اًلع بًم١له ءاٌٛٙا ؼجٖ٠ .ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ٟف خم١لك "خّل" لعٛ٠ لا .ٟعهبقٌا ءبٚفٌا غ٠وفزٌ ًب١غ٠هلر ٓ١ث 111 ٚ 121 ( اًوزٍِٛ١و 62
- 85 بًٍ١ِ
ٓ١ث ًٕبفٌا لؾٌا دب٦فروٌّا ٜلِ هبجز٥ا ٓىّ٠ ، حل٠ل٥ ٗاوغلأٚ ٍٝ٥لأ )
/ داوزٍِٛ١ىٌا دبئِ ل٦ث ٍٝ٥ خ٠ٛغٌا داىبغٌٍ بٍٙب١ل ٓىّ٠ ٓىٌٚ اًلع خم١له هبصآ نبٕ٘ ، هٌم ٤ِٚ .ءبٚفٌاٚ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا
ٗهلأا ؼٍٞ قٛف يب١ِلأا.
ٌا فلاغٌا ٟف خفٍزقٌّا دبمجٌٞا ٚأ كٝبٌّٕا ِٓ ل٠ل٦ٌا نبٕ٘
ٓؾٔ .حي١ِّ و٘اٛ١ٚ ٛٛغٙٚ حهاوؽ دبعهك بِٕٙ ًىٌ .ٞٛغ
٘٦ث و١ٞر .بًج٠ومر ٌمٌٞا ًو سلؾ٠ٚ َٛ١غٌا ُ٢٦ِ لعٛر ش١ؽ ، ب١ٔلٌا خمجٌٞا ٟ٘ٚ ، و١فٍٛثٚوزٌا خمجٝ ٟف ِ١٦ٔ
.ْٚىٚلأا خمجٝٚ خصبفٌٕا داهب١زٌا ٍٝ٥ ٞٛزؾر ٟزٌا ، و١فٍٛراوزٌَا ، خ١ٌبزٌا ب١ٍ٦ٌا خمجٌٞا ٟف خصبفٌٕا داوئبٌٞا ياير لا ٍٝ٥أ
ٟ٘ mesosphere ٚ thermosphere ٚ exosphere. ٗهلأٌ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا دبمجٝ ٍٝ٥ فو٦ر:
خفٍزقٌّا ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا دبمجٝ
ٟ٘ دبمجٌٞا ٖن٘ .ٖبٔكأ ًىٌْا ٟف ؼِٙٛ ٛ٘ بّو ، ٗرهاوؽ خعهك ٍٝ٥ ًءبٕث دبمجٝ ٌٝإ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ُ١َمر ٓىّ٠ ١فٍٚي١ٌّاٚ و١فٍٛراوزٌَاٚ و١فٍٛثٚوزٌا ٌٟاٛؽ ل٦ث ٍٝ٥ ألجر ، ٜوفأ خمِٕٞ .ٞهاوؾٌا فلاغٌاٚ و
511 قٛف وزٍِٛ١و
ٟعهبقٌا فلاغٌا َّٝر ، ٗهلأا ؼٍٞ.
The Troposphere
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains most of our weather - clouds, rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as the distance above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometre. The actual change of temperature with height varies from day to day, depending on the weather.
The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all of the water vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in temperature with height is a result of the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air moves upwards it expands
(because of the lower pressure). When air expands it cools. So air higher up is cooler than air lower down.
The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer. This is where the air motion is determined by the properties of the Earth's surface. Turbulence is generated as the wind blows over the Earth's surface, and by thermals rising from the land as it is heated by the sun. This turbulence redistributes heat and moisture within the boundary layer, as well as pollutants and other constituents of the atmosphere.
The top of the troposphere is called the tropopause. This is lowest at the poles, where it is about 7 - 10 km above the Earth's surface. It is highest (about 17 - 18 km) near the
equator.
و١فٍٛثٚوزٌا ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ِٓ ٍٟفٌَا ءيغٌا ٛ٘ ان٘
- ٌمٌٞا ُ٢٦ِ ٍٝ٥ ٞٛزؾ٠ .ٗ١ف ِ١٦ٔ ٞنٌا ءيغٌا -
ٟف .ظٍضٌاٚ وٌّٞاٚ َٛ١غٌا
ٛؾٕث ٗهلأا قٛف خفبٌَّا دكاى بٍّو كوثأ حهاوؾٌا خعهك ؼجٖر ، ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ِٓ ءيغٌا ان٘
6.5 ًىٌ خ٠ٛئِ خعهك
ٌمٌٞا ٍٝ٥ اًكبّز٥ا ، وف٢ َٛ٠ ِٓ ٣بفرهلاا ٤ِ حهاوؾٌا خعهلٌ ٍٟ٦فٌا و١١غزٌا فٍزق٠ .وزٍِٛ١و. ٌٟاٛؽ ٍٝ٥ و١فٍٛثٚوزٌا ٞٛزؾ٠ 85
تؾٌَا ًىْ٠ ٞنٌا( بًج٠ومر ءبٌّا هبقث ًوٚ ، ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ٟف ءاٌٛٙا ٤١ّع ِٓ ٪
غ١زٔ ٣بفرهلاا ٤ِ حهاوؾٌا خعهك ٗبفقٔا .)وٌّٞاٚ
تجَث( كلّز٠ ٍٝ٥أ ٌٝإ ءاٌٛٙا ِٓ ءيع نوؾر امإ .ٜغٌٚا ٗبفقٔلا خ
ًفٍأ ٌٝإ ءاٌٛٙا ِٓ حكٚوث وضوأ ٍٝ٥أ ٍٝ٥أ ءاٌٛٙا انٌ .كوج٠ ءاٌٛٙا كلّز٠ بِلٕ٥ .)٘فقٌّٕا ٜغٌٚا. ف يلاف ِٓ ءاٌٛٙا خووؽ ٗ١ف كلؾر ٞنٌا ْبىٌّا ٛ٘ ان٘ .خ٠لؾٌا خمجٌٞا َّٝ٠ و١فٍٛثٚوزٌا خمجٝ ِٓ ٍٟفٌَا ءيغٌا ٔئبٖ
ِٓ حهاوؾٌا دبعهك ٣بفرها يلاف ِٓٚ ، ٗهلأا ؼٍٞ ٍٝ٥ ػب٠وٌا ةٛج٘ ءبٕصأ ةاوٞٙلاا ل١ٌٛر ُز٠ .ٗهلأا ؼٍٞ
هٌنوٚ ، خ٠كٚلؾٌا خمجٌٞا ًفاك خثٛٝوٌاٚ حهاوؾٌا ٤٠ىٛر ةاوٞٙلاا ان٘ ل١٦٠ .ٌٌّْا ِٓ بٕٙ١قَر ءبٕصأ ٗهلأا
ٜوفلأا ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا دبٔٛىِٚ دبصٌٍّٛا.
ٍٛ٦ٌا ءيغٌا َّٝ٠ ٌٟاٛؽ ٗ٥بفرها غٍج٠ ش١ؽ ، ٓ١جٞمٌا ٟف ٜٛزَِ ٝٔكأ ٛ٘ ان٘ .ىٛثٛثٚوزٌا و١فٍٛثٚوزٌا ِٓ ٞ
8 - 11 ُو
ٌٟاٛؽ( ٍٝ٥أ ٛ٘ .ٗهلأا ؼٍٞ قٛف 18
- 17 ءاٛزٍلاا ٜف ِٓ ةومٌبث )ُو
.
which were once used in refrigerators, spray cans and fire extinguishers have reduced the amount of ozone in the stratosphere, particularly at polar latitudes, leading to the so- called "Antarctic ozone hole".
Now humans have stopped making most of the harmful CFCs we expect the ozone hole will eventually recover over the 21st century, but this is a slow process.
The Mesosphere
The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about - 90°C at the "mesopause".
The Thermosphere and Ionosphere
The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which
temperatures again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun.
The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the
"ionosphere", since the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions" with a positive charge. The temperature of the thermosphere varies between night and day and between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions and electrons which are present. The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive shortwave radio broadcasts in New Zealand from other parts of the world.
ٟف ْٚىٚلأا خ١ّو ِٓ ذٍٍل ك٠وؾٌا دب٠بفٝٚ ُوٌا تٍ٥ٚ دبعلاضٌا ٟف كثبٌَا ٟف َلقزَر ذٔبو ٟزٌا تٞمٌا ٟف ْٚىٚلأا تمص" َّٝ٠ بِ ٌٝإ ٜكأ بِّ ، خ١جٞمٌا ٗو٦ٌا ٛٛٞف ٟف خٕبف ، و١فٍٛراوزٌَا
ٟثٕٛغٌا".
ا حهبٌٚا ْٛثووٚهٍٛفٚهٍٛىٌا دبجووِ ُ٢٦ِ ٤ٕٕ ٓ٥ وْجٌا فلٛر ْ٢ا ْٚىٚلأا تمص ٝفب٦ز٠ ْأ ٤لٛزٔ ٟزٌ
خئ١ٞث خ١ٍّ٥ ٖن٘ ٓىٌ ، ٓ٠وْ٦ٌاٚ ٞكبؾٌا ْومٌا يلاف فبٌّٞا خ٠بٙٔ ٟف. و١فٍٚي١ٌّا ، ٣بفرهلاا ٤ِ ٜوفأ حوِ حهاوؾٌا خعهك ٘فقٕر بٕ٘ .ٍٜٛزٌّا فلاغٌا َّٝر و١فٍٛراوزٌَا قٛف خمٌّٕٞا
ٌٟاٛؽ غٍج٠ ٝٔكأ لؽ ٌٝإ ًٖزٌ
- 01
ٟف خ٠ٛئِ خعهك "mesopause".
و١فٍٛٔٛ٠لأاٚ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ٤ِ ٜوفأ حوِ حهاوؾٌا دبعهك بٙ١ف ٤فرور خمِٕٞ ٟ٘ٚ ، شٌّٞا ٣بٞمٔا حوزف قٛف ٞهاوؾٌا فلاغٌا ٤م٠ خ١ٕ١ٌَا خ٦ّلأاٚ خٌْٕٞا خ١غَفٕجٌا قٛف خ٦ّلأا ٓبٖزِا ٓ٥ خغربٔ حهاوؾٌا خعهك ٟف حكب٠يٌا ٖن٘ .٣بفرهلاا
ٌٌّْا ِٓ. قٛف ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا خمِٕٞ تجَزر 71
ٌْٜٕا ٌَّْٟا ٣ب٦ّلإا ْلأ ، "ٓ٠أزٌّا فلاغٌا" ٟف بًٚ٠أ اًوزٍِٛ١و
حهاوؽ خعهك فٍزقر .خجعِٛ خٕؾْث "دبٔٛ٠أ" ٌٝإ بٌٙٛؾ٠ٚ ، داهنٌاٚ دبئ٠يغٌا ِٓ دبٔٚوزىٌلإا كوٞ٠ ٌى٦٠ .حكٛعٌّٛا دبٔٚوزىٌلإاٚ دبٔٛ٠لأا كل٥ هٌنوٚ ، يٖٛفٌا ٓ١ثٚ هبٌٕٙاٚ ً١ٌٍا ٓ١ث ٞهاوؾٌا فلاغٌا
ٛ٠لأا ٟف حو١ٖمٌا دبعٌّٛبث ٟ٥املإا شجٌا يبجمزٍا بٌٕ ؼ١ز٠ بِّ ، بٖٙزّ٠ٚ خ٠ٛ٠كاوٌا دبعٌّٛا و١فٍٛٔ
ٌُب٦ٌا ِٓ ٜوفأ ءايعأ ِٓ الٍٕ٠ىٛ١ٔ.
Atmosphere and climate
The atmosphere has a key-role for the environmental conditions on the planet. Yet, our understanding of the system “atmosphere” is incomplete and predictions concerning the development of the climate and its effects/feedbacks on the environment are subject to ؿبٌّٕاٚ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا َب٢ٌٕ بّٕٙف ، هٌم ٤ِٚ .ٗهلأا توٛو ٍٝ٥ خ١ئ١جٌا فٚو٢ٌا ٟف بً١َ١ئه اًهٚك ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ت٦ٍ٠ ي ٤ٚقر خئ١جٌا ٍٝ٥ ٍٗ٦ف كٚكه / ٗراو١صأرٚ ؿبٌّٕا هٛٞزث خمٍ٦زٌّا داؤجٕزٌاٚ ًّزىِ و١غ "ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا"
حو١جو نٛىّ. large uncertainties.
Therefore, one of our defined objectives is to better understand the complex interactions between the atmosphere and other divisions of the earth system. An interdisciplinary and integrated approach is pursued, with laboratory studies, field measurement campaigns, and long-term observations of the atmosphere.
All these aspects, combined with model simulations, will enhance our knowledge of the earth-atmosphere interactions (water fluxes, influence of land surface) and their impacts on anthropogenic activities.
In this framework, IIE focuses its efforts in the development of innovative sensing technologies (robots, wireless networks, LIDAR)
ٙف ٛ٘ حكلؾٌّا بٕفال٘أ لؽأ ْئف ، هٌنٌ
َب٢ٔ ٟف ٜوفلأا دبِبَمٔلااٚ ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌا ٓ١ث حلم٦ٌّا دلا٥بفزٌٍ ًٚفأ ُ
، خ١ٔال١ٌّا ًب١مٌا دلاّؽٚ ، خ٠وجزقٌّا دبٍاهلٌا ٤ِ ، ًِبىزِٚ دبٖٖقزٌا كل٦زِ ظٙٔ ٣بجرا ُز٠ .ٗهلأا
ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌٍ ٜلٌّا خٍ٠ٛٝ دب٢ؽلاٌّاٚ. زفو٦ِ ، طمبٌّٕا حبوبؾِ تٔبع ٌٝإ ، تٔاٛغٌا ٖن٘ ًو ىي٦زٍ
، ٖب١ٌّا دبمفلر( ٞٛغٌا فلاغٌاٚ ٗهلأا ٓ١ث دلا٥بفزٌبث بٕ
بٙراو١صأرٚ )ٗهلأا ؼٍٞ و١صأرٚ
خ٠وْجٌا خْٞٔلأا ٍٝ٥. يوور ، هبٝلإا ان٘ ٟف IIE وىزجٌّا هب٦ْزٍلاا و٠ٛٞر ٟف ب٘كٛٙع
ٚ خ١ىٍٍلاٌا دبىجٌْاٚ دبرٛثٚوٌا( دب١ٕمزٌا LIDAR)
References
1. Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
2. σσαῖρα Archived 2017-05-10 at the Wayback Machine, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library
3. "Earth's Atmosphere Composition: Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon and CO2". Earth How. 2017-07-31. Retrieved 2019-10-22.
4. Seki, K.; Elphic, R. C.; Hirahara, M.; Terasawa, T.; Mukai, T. (2001). "On Atmospheric Loss of Oxygen Ions from Earth Through Magnetospheric Processes". Science. 291 (5510): 1939–1941. Bibcode:2001Sci .. 291.1939S.
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.471.2226. doi:10.1126/science.1058913. PMID 11239148.
Archived from the original on 2007-10-01. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
5. Gunell, H.; Maggiolo, R.; Nilsson, H.; Stenberg Wieser, G.; Slapak, R.; Lindkvist, J.; Hamrin, M.; De Keyser, J. (2018). "Why an intrinsic magnetic field does not protect a planet against atmospheric escape". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 614:
L3. Bibcode:2018A&A...614L...3G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/2018