How to write a materials and methods section of a scientific article?

Topic (4)

How to write a materials and methods section of a scientific article?

Answer:

The methods section of a research proposal contains details about how you will conduct your research. It includes your study design - the methodology and methods that you plan to use - as well as your work plan - the activities that you plan to undertake to complete your project.

The methods section of a research proposal must contain all the necessary information that will facilitate another researcher to replicate your research. The purpose of writing this section is to convince the funding agency that the methods you plan to use are sound and this is the most suitable approach to address the problem you have chosen.

You must also demonstrate your understanding of alternative methods to show that you have made a sound and well-

calculated judgment. The methods section of your research proposal should answer the following questions:



What is your study design and why did you choose it?



Is the study qualitative or quantitative?



What are the methods you will use to collect data?



Who will be the participants of your study?



What procedures/activities will the study involve?



How long will the experiments/study take to get

completed?

The methods and methodology section of the research proposal provides an overall plan of how the research objectives will be achieved. In empirical research, it includes a description of the methods and the processes and tools used to gather and analyse the data, as well as an explanation of any conceptual perspective/s that inform the research process. In disciplines such as law, creative writing and art, where the language of 'data' and 'methods' may have little resonance, it is nevertheless important to explain how the research or art making practice will be undertaken. Regardless of discipline, the research design section of the research proposal tells the reader what you intend to do, how and where you will do it, and why you will do it in this way.

The research design section encompasses the:

 methodology or rationale that underpins the research aim, study design, choice of method or approach and the analysis of data,

 data collection methods and study design, or description of artistic practice and materials,

 strategies used to analyse data (except for creative writers and artists),

 discussion of special ethical circumstances as applicable.

Definition of methods and methodology

According to the dictionary, method refers to 'an orderly or systematic procedure for doing something'. Methods are the physical techniques or

procedures used to gather and analyse data, or to produce a creative artefact.

Some common research methods include:

 observation

 statistical analsyis of publically available data or records

 art making practice

 creative writing

 documentary or film making.

Methodology

Methodology refers to 'the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the choice and use of particular methods, and linking the choice and use of

methods to the desired outcomes' (Crotty, 1998:3). Methodology can refer to theory, philosophy or more practical decision making that underpins the research.

Definition of theory, frameworks, models and philosophy

Research design is often informed by theory, frameworks, models or by a philosophical approach. Each of these terms has a different meaning. Being clear about their meaning is helpful not only in selecting appropriate language to use in your research proposal, but in understanding the kind of content that needs to be provided when defining the conceptual assumptions underpinning your research. The terms philosophy or theory, particularly social theory, are often used interchangeably within social and human research, although strictly speaking they refer to different things.

Theory: refers to a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles.

It follows that when you define a theory in your research design you will describe what the theory explains or predicts, or what general principles it provides.

Framework: refers to a structure underlying a system, concept or text.

It follows that when you define a framework in your research design you will explain the system the framework is proposed to underly, as well as the elements or components the system is comprised of.

Model: refers to a systematic description of an object or phenomenon that shares important characteristics with the object or phenomenon.

A description of a model will tell the reader which object or phenomena the model describes and the characteristics that are a part of that object or phenomena, as proposed by the model.

Computer model: refers to a representation of a system or process created on a computer, to assist calculations and predictions.

A description of a computer model will name the system or process, and the calculation and prediction it enables.

Note that frameworks and models are not theories, because they do not predict or explain what happens. Rather, models and frameworks tell us about the characteristics or properties of phenomena.

Philosophy: is the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality and existence. Philosophical approach determines the kinds of questions you ask, the assumptions you make about the nature of 'reality', and how you propose to gain 'valid' knowledge' about phenomena. For the most part, philosophical questions underpinning the research design pertain to epistemology. Epistemology refers to the branch of philosophy which deals with how we come to know about ourselves and our world, or the philosophical grounds upon which we will claim to have produced 'valid knowledge'. For instance, your epistemological approach determines whether you validate your knowledge on the basis of observable or quantifiable phenomenon, or whether you hold that knowledge arises in human experience and interaction, and requires qualitative methods to explore. There are many philosophical approaches within the social sciences and humanities which attempt to address these kinds of questions. For more support in clarifying the philosophical premises that underpin your research aim or methodological rationale see the Social philosophy of research for social sciences, education and humanitiesresources.

You may observe that theories, frameworks and models are often specific to a discipline, although some may be shared by two or more disciplines. Philosophy is a little bit different, and specifically social philosophy, because the same

philosophical approaches are often used across disciplines in the social sciences and humanities.

Structure of the research design section

Research proposals tend to discuss the main elements of the research design in the following order:

 General introduction provides a concise statement of any

conceptual assumptions that inform the research design, research phases and the relationship between research phases, methods or description of creative practice, and other key information needed to get an overview of the research design (such as detail about samples, case studies, research tools). This can be omitted if key information has already been provided in the introduction.

 Methodology introduces theory or other conceptual content, or other important information that explains the overall design or assumptions underpinning the research design.

 Methods and data collection processes could include headings or information pertaining to methods, process for data collection, materials, sample, selection of sample, recording processes. In visual arts or more scholarly or creative humanities disciplines there may be a discussion of key

themes, metaphors or ideas to be used in the creation of artistic or literary work.

 Data analysis is the last part of the research design section and includes an explanation of the approach to data analysis. Research which does not collect 'data' would omit this section.

General introduction

The general introduction provides a concise statement (where applicable) of:

 underpinning philosophy,

 theoretical approach,

 research phases,

 relationship between research phases,

 methods and research process, or, for exegeses, the section that describes your creative practice, the approach, materials, themes adopted,

 approach to data analysis (not typically for artefact based research).

One or two paragraphs which provide this key information should be provided before going into the detail of the methodology. This enables the reader to understand the overall research rationale as well as the general shape of the research design or approach before being presented with detail about the different aspects within it. This introduction would typically appear in the introduction of the proposal, and/or in the introduction of the methodology section of the proposal. Try to avoid reproducing content provided in the introduction. This can be achieved by focusing on providing more detail in the introduction to the methodology section than is provided in the research proposal introduction.

If the research has more than one phase or study, these should also be introduced, along with the methods and perhaps the data analysis approach to be taken in each phase or study. It is also important to briefly describe the relationship, if any, between the phases or studies in the introduction to the research design.

A good way to communicate your research rationale clearly within this introduction to your methodology is to link the research aim, question or focus with a description of the works to be produced, or the methods, materials, phases adopted, in the first sentence or sentences of the general introduction. The aim, question or focus should be taken from the 'gap' highlighted in the final paragraphs of the literature review section or chapter of the thesis or exegesis.

For example, try using the following sentence structure: ‘In order to investigate … (insert research question/focus here) … this study undertook … (insert detail of work/methods/methodology)'.

Phrases like 'in order to determine ...', 'to verify whether ...', 'to test the assumption that ...', 'to discover if ...' can also be placed before the research aim, question or focus. Use language appropriate to your discipline and to your methodology. For instance artists and creative writers might use terms like 'to explore the insight that ...', or 'to evoke the conceptual limitation contained in ...'.

Example linking of question and method

In order to explore the relationships between employee representation, organisational justice, and work-life spill-over, the research will comprise two interrelated studies. Study one is a qualitative survey utilising one-on-one in- depth interviews designed to facilitate ‘telling the story’ of respondents. Study one will determine the format and design of questions in the cross-sectional quantitative survey in study two. Though the cross-sectional survey cannot demonstrate cause and effect relationships, it can evaluate the relationship between an outcome and various predictors as they exist at a particular point in time. The results of the qualitative and quantitative studies aim to capture employee experience of industrial relations (voice and representation) and its impacts upon their experience of organisational justice, and work-life interaction.

Main body

The main body provides more detail (as applicable) about:

 theory or philosophy,

 justification of a case study,

 introduction to methods (including sample, selection and data collection and recording processes), or art making practices, narrative structures, materials used, concepts evoked or engaged with in creative work (for exegeses),

 explanation of the approach to data analysis (except for artistic or literary works).

These aspects of the research may be separated out in the section with separate headings. When different methods use their own sample, selection method, data collection and recording process, use a separate heading for each method, with sub headings under each to cover sample and analysis information for the data set covered. In very complex research, methods headings might be needed under larger headings for each research phase, with sub-headings under each method

heading for the different aspects of the research process. For complex research designs involving many phases, methods and processes of data analysis, a diagrammatic representation may be helpful.

Depending on your research design, it will be important to include information about:

 pilot project and results;

 research participants/organisations/texts;

 the criteria used to determine the sources of information selected (how sample selected, size, location, generalisability, criteria for inclusions and exclusions);

 the means by which information sources will be negotiated and accessed;

 the means by which data will be collected and recorded;

 how the data will be analysed once it is collected (surveys, questionnaires, statistical tests, equations and mathematical models, the kinds of information or questions that will inform the coding of interview transcripts and policy analysis);

 how the validity, reliability, and rigor of the knowledge will be assured;

 independent, dependent and confounding variables;

 study setting–naturalistic or contrived;

 equipment, techniques, measures, measurement scales, materials used;

 time horizon – snapshot, longitudinal, retrospective, multiple points in time.

The methods chapter or section does not include results, unless they were obtained to shape some aspect of the method and are more relevant to the methods section than the results section which answers the overarching thesis question.

Note that the typical order of content for methodology sections or chapters follows a few basic principles:

 moves from abstract to detailed content (from philosophy, theory, to detail of the methods and data collection, and then to analysis),

 follows the chronological order in which you did the research (from conceptualisation, to preparation of sample, to data collection, to data analysis),

 utilises a two step pattern within each part of the content (says what you did in step one, and why you did it that way in step two).

Since every research design is unique, there is no standard method or research design template that determines what to include. It is necessary to carefully think through what information will be provided in the research proposal, and what will be left out for your own study.

The two-step pattern within the main body

The main body of the methodology section of the research proposal might be thought about as having a two-step pattern. Although these steps are typically blended within the general discussion of the research design, it is useful to consider their distinctive forms.

A first step is to describe the steps and aspects within the research design or approach, in detail, and concisely. Typically this step takes up most of the content of the method and methodology section of the research proposal. This step may include a definition of a theory, model, framework, epistemology or practical tool, and a description of how it will be applied in your research design or approach.

A second step is to explain why the approach, and the details within the approach, were chosen. In many cases the link to the aim will be obvious in the research design, but for some aspects of the research design it may be important to provide explicit explanation for the choice made. The second step in the pattern shows how the approach enables you to achieve the research aim, or to answer the question.

For example: step one, 'Grounded theory assumes that ... (reference). The analysis therefore involves ... (describe research design)'; step two, 'A grounded theory analysis is useful for this study because ...(link back to research aim)'.

When justifying your decisions in step two, work to draw the discussion back to your own research rationale and research aim in some way. You can check your writing to ensure that the detail and explanation provided in your research design section either implicitly or explicitly links back to your research aim, question or objective.

Ethical considerations

If there are no special ethical considerations arising from the research, you can simply refer the reader to consent forms and recruitment materials, such as information sheets and letters of introduction, attached in the appendices as they become relevant within the description of the research design.

When preparing information for research participants, it is important to follow recommended information sheet guidelines and to carefully adapt model consent forms to the requirements of your own research.

If specific ethical issues are raised by your research, they should be raised and discussed in the final part of the research design section of the research proposal. Ethical issues are raised for example when working offshore, with human tissue, with vulnerable groups, or in situations in which issues of dependency, unequal power, or coercion may arise. More information about special ethical circumstances can be found on the Graduate Research Centre web site.

Timeline

The timeline usually follows the research design within the structure of the research proposal. The timeline is typically provided in the form of a table or chart describing when particular milestones will be met across the duration of candidature. The milestones referred to in the timeline include the steps in the research design, as well as research writing and communication outcomes, like deadlines for drafts and dates for presentations. The timeline assists in answering reviewers questions about the feasibility of the research.

Some tips to consider when designing your timeline:

 It is normal to underestimate the amount of time that will be needed for different stages in the research, so be generous and check with experienced researchers.

 Work backwards from the submission of your thesis.

 Break down each step within the research design, including any pilots, collection and analysis of data, and plot it on the timeline.

 Include any external constraints or deadlines within the timeline.

 Have a look at a range of other timelines in research proposals and grant applications and choose what you will include in your own. Some examples are provided below.

Conclusion

The methodology section of the research proposal aims to show the reviewer that the methodology, method and approach to data analysis will be adequate to the stated research aims.

The following questions may be useful in assessing whether your research design section has included all the necessary information and explanation.

 Have I provided an overview of the research design in the introduction (of the research proposal and/or the methodology section)?

 Have I linked my aim or question with the method and methodology in the opening paragraph of the methodology section?

 Have I included a discussion of any theory, frameworks, models or philosophy underpinning my methodological approach?

 Have I discussed the full process for each phase or data set, including how it will be analysed?

 Have I both described and justified each choice within my research design in the main body of the research design section?

 Have I addressed any special ethical considerations arising from the research?

 Have I provided a timeline which maps key stages in the research process against time.

Seven Tips for Writing an Effective Materials and Methods Section in Your Research Manuscript:

1. Begin writing the Materials and Methods while you are performing your experiments.

Writing during the research process will prevent you from forgetting important details and save you time when you begin writing the full manuscript. You can also ask co-authors who performed specific experiments to write the corresponding parts of the Methods section.

2. Start with general information that applies to the entire

manuscript and then move on to specific experimental details.

Examples of general information that you could begin with are characteristics of the study population, sources and genotypes of bacterial strains, or descriptions of samples or sample sites. Then, you could share more details about your experiment.

3. Match the order in which methods are described to the order of the results that were generated using those methods.

Also, be sure that each method you used is described, even if it is just a quick sentence (e.g., “Toxin assays were performed as described [reference]”). This practice is helpful for transparency, as well as reproducibility.

4. Always include citations for procedures that have been

described previously.

Writing during the research process will prevent you from forgetting important details and save you time when you begin writing the full manuscript. You can also ask co-authors who performed specific experiments to write the corresponding parts of the Methods section.

2. Start with general information that applies to the entire

manuscript and then move on to specific experimental details.

Examples of general information that you could begin with are characteristics of the study population, sources and genotypes of bacterial strains, or descriptions of samples or sample sites. Then, you could share more details about your experiment.

3. Match the order in which methods are described to the order of the results that were generated using those methods.

Also, be sure that each method you used is described, even if it is just a quick sentence (e.g., “Toxin assays were performed as described [reference]”). This practice is helpful for transparency, as well as reproducibility.

4. Always include citations for procedures that have been described previously.

f you made any modifications, be sure to list them.

5. Describe statistical tests as fully as possible.

Give as much information about the tests as possible; just mentioning a t-test is not sufficient for the reader to determine if the correct statistical analysis was performed.

6. Avoid discussing the pros and cons of certain methods or results of any kind.

Save evaluations for different methods for the Discussion section of your paper.

7. To save space, be concise, yet thorough, when listing the

equipment you used.

You might consider listing all of your equipment purchased from a single company in one sentence. Or, you could create a flowchart figure of the steps in an important procedure.

Before you finish your manuscript, ask yourself the following questions about your Materials and Methods section to ensure that you have included all important information.

1. Is there sufficient detail so that the experiments can be reproduced?

2. Is there excess information that could be removed without affecting the interpretation of the results?

3. Are all the appropriate controls mentioned?

4. Are all appropriate citations included?

5. Is the source of each reagent listed?

Writing the Materials and Methods can be tedious, but a well-written section can enhance your chances of publication and strengthen your conclusions. If you have further

questions, download our free white paper on writing the Materials and Methods section or send us an email. Best of luck with your research!