Ámbito de aplicación de la Ley y principio de legalidad

School effectiveness literature attempts to identify those activities and characteristics that, when present in a school, provide the greatest potential to maximize student outcome (Schofield, 1999, p.2). Thus, SE researchers attempt to identify characteristics common to schools which are felt to be ‘effective’, and then attempt to identify how different characteristics cross-correlate to further increase a schools´ effectiveness potential. Some literature defines school ‘effectiveness’ in terms of the differences to student outcomes (measured in a variety of ways) that a school makes (through identified school organizational factors) taking cognizance of pupils´ prior learning history and background.

In gathering data and correlation studies, SE research has mostly followed quantitative approaches utilizing surveys and questionnaires. Schofield observes that these studies

have generally been national or regional in focus and have resulted in the generation of several ‘lists’ of school effectiveness (see table 1 below):

FACTORS CHARACTERISTIC

Firm and purposeful A participative approach Professional leadership

The leading professional Unity of purpose

Consistency of practice Shared vision and goals

Collegiality and collaboration An orderly atmosphere A learning environment

An attractive working environment Maximisation of learning time Academic emphasis

Concentrating on teaching and learning

Focus on achievement Efficient organization Clarity of purpose Structured lessons Purposeful teaching Adaptive practice High expectations Communicating expectations High expectations

Providing intellectual challenge Clear and fair discipline Positive reinforcement

Feedback

Monitoring pupil performance Monitoring progress

Evaluating school performance Raising pupil self-esteem Positions of responsibility Pupil rights and responsibilities

Control of work Home-School partnership Parental involvement

Table1: School effectiveness indicators (Adapted from; Gray, Jesson and Reynolds 1996 in Schofield 1999 pp. 2-3)

In a situation like that of Malawi, the above factors should form a basis for the work of teacher/school developers. There is need for the various stake holders in education to reach consensus on which factors need to be achieved as a matter of urgency and then to work coherently towards achieving such goals. As witnessed from the results of the empirical evidence within this study (see chapter 6), consensus at a regional or district level could be problematic if not well coordinated by the Ministry of Education. With regard to problems on reaching consensus of that nature, Scheerens (2000) explains that it was only in the mid 1990s that researchers in the field of school effectiveness had

achieved a high degree of consensus regarding those factors that, when found in a school, serve to constitute the school as an ‘effective’ one. Greater debate emerges when SE researchers begin to investigate differences among school effects or to introduce a temporal framework into their analysis. Consequently, literature is currently beginning to investigate questions relating to consistency of school performance on different

effectiveness correlations over time, and/or across different school phases, and/or in terms of effect on schools of differing socio-economic environments (Sammons, Mortimore and Thomas, 1996, pp. 4-5). Additionally, SE approaches have, of late, focused increasingly on micro-analysis of school cultures to deepen the understanding of how SE indicators correlate in particular school environments (see Brown, Ruddell and Duffield, 1996). Given that the interest of this current study lies within teacher sub- cultures, a micro-analysis of school culture would mean, amongst other things, scrutiny of those issues that have to do with good practice and teaching/teacher effectiveness.

Graham et al (2002) provide seven principles of effective teaching, six of which seem directly relevant to this discussion:

• Good practice encourages cooperation among students

• Good practice encourages active learning

• Good practice gives prompt feedback

• Good practice emphasises time on task

• Good practice respects diverse talent and ways of learning

• Good practice communicates high expectations

During The Third Cambridge Assessment Research Seminar in the UK (31 January 2006), Mary James proposed a set of principles that describe a good teacher, clustered around four themes. These clusters of principles seem to be valuable tools for engaging discussion about effective teaching and learning:

Education values and purposes: This is perhaps the most important cluster, since it underlies understandings of later clusters. This principle suggests that effective teachers have a holistic sense of ‘learning’ and learners, and that their ‘practice’ recognises the importance of good relationships alongside the social and emotional aspects of learning. To this effect, teachers’ understanding of ‘learning’ is the focus of empirical studies in this research (see chapters 5 & 6), based on the theoretical discussion carried out in 3.3 above

Curriculum, pedagogy and assessment: this is in recognition that education deals with forms of knowledge that are culturally valued. There is also an implication that learning

is successful when it is dialogic in nature. This allows for teacher recognition of learner prior knowledge and the scaffolding of learning. It is also imperative that assessment is congruent with a complex and longitudinal view of learning.

Personal and social processes: Learning is a social activity and the power of

collaborative and informal working needs to be recognised. Effective teachers promote active learner engagement and consider both personal learning and social, grouped learning outcomes. In recognition of this point, a detailed discussion of IRI as artefact for mediating teachers’ classroom practices including learner-centred approaches has been presented in the preceding section. Further discussion on how this would apply in the Malawian context is provided in chapters7 and 8.

Teachers and policies: At the heart of teachers’ professionalism is a sense that they should be reflexive and that their own learning is developed within their service. There is also a need to have consistent policy frameworks which have teaching and learning as their primary focus (James, 2006).

As a contribution to this discussion on good practice and good teaching at the same seminar, Debbie Mayhill (2006) argued that ‘Good’ is a value statement and is therefore a cultural judgment. Countries with the highest achieving schools tend to consider teaching to be a high status profession, attracting highly qualified graduates. She gives the example of the UK where recent years have seen teachers accorded a growing status. She poses the question whether highly qualified graduates necessarily make the best teachers, and whether the skills already highlighted by other speakers (as above) be taught through teacher training?

Mayhill’s reasoning is that the ‘intellectual calibre’ of people joining the profession should not be conceptualised in a narrow sense. It inevitably involves a degree of subject knowledge but it should also consider pedagogic understanding; how to translate and mediate knowledge to learners. It should also involve critical and reflective knowledge to enable teaching practice to continue to move forward. She stresses that ‘Creative

adaptation’ is also a crucial aspect of teaching. The ability to mediate policy through a clear understanding of learning is what often sets good teachers apart from those others who consistently resist or passively adopt new initiatives. This point is critical when considering the rollout of the Malawi IRI programme to, especially, rural remote schools where the majority of teachers are unqualified whether in an academic or professional sense.

According to Mayhill, the desire to ‘make a difference’ should be at the heart of teachers’ value and belief systems. High expectations are often related to high outcomes but this involves teachers aspiring to change rather than replicate educational outcome patterns commonly associated with particular learner groups. This requires learners to be

considered as individuals and teachers to be enthusiastic about change and development. Teachers also need to be excellent communicators. This involves an ability to interact with learners and fellow teaching colleagues. Another key disposition that Mayhill emphasises is emotional resilience. Teachers need to be able to cope with failure and be able to balance this against a drive towards perfection. If this balance isn’t successfully struck, it can potentially lead to burn out.

In the end, Mayhill also mentions context of learning as an important consideration, and the importance of ongoing support for teachers’ development whilst teaching as

something that needs to be acknowledged. This point forms a basis of the general discussion (of findings) in chapter 7 and also of the recommendations that follow in chapter 8. Overall, an argument is put forward for an IRI-based CPD that would holistically cater for these pedagogic content knowledge needs and professional dispositions as illustrated in figure 5 (chapter 7).