Área de lenguas extranjeras en el instituto

The stigmatisation of women parenting alone is consistently mentioned by all the women in this study. They are very aware of the disadvantaged position imposed on them by stereotypical judgements and are consequently always trying to elevate their status in some way. This puts them under a constant pressure they do not need. Social Welfare records indicate that the number of sole parents receiving benefits more than trebled between 1976 and 1991, from 27,688 to 97,420. This is the usual figure quoted by government sources to emphasise the exponential growth of this group of beneficiaries as a means of supporting the introduction of draconian measures such as benefit cuts and a reduction in the Accommodation Supplement, which the government assumes will halt this growth. The figures from year to year, while still increasing for most years, except 1992 when there was a dmp in numbers which was largely attributable to the benefit cuts of 1991, do not make such dramatic reading.

TABLE 3 . 1 Sole parents on Domestic Purposes Benefit (Year ending 30 June)

Sole parents 1 99 1 93,682 1 992 90,935 1 993 1 994 1 99 5 1 996 1 99 7 92,6 1 0 96,709 1 00,378 1 04,466 1 07,629 Number of 1 57,7 1 7 1 54,4 39 1 57,283 1 65,600 1 73,62 1 1 83,085 1 89,059 <.:hildren

Source: Department of Social Welfare: 1 997:34

Domestic Purposes Beneficiaries make up 89% of all single parent families and these families make up 24% of the total number of families with children (Rochford:1993:11). At the end of June 1997 there were 112,395 domestic purposes beneficiaries (Department of Social Welfare: 1997: 10).2 At the end of June

2 Not all of these benefit recipients were women.

The overall gradual increase in the Humber of people applying for the Domestic Purposes Benefit (DPB) reflects demographic change with a 45% growth in the number of women between the ages of 2 5 and 44, the childbearing age group, since the middle seventies. This movement wil l continue to boost beneficiary numbers until early next century. The increased numbers of domestic purposes beneficiaries also reflects changing attitudes to relationships rather than a concerted effort by these women to take from the 'taxpayer'. It is also important to note that 80% of those on the DPB, stay on it for fewer than six years (Poverty Warriors: 1 997).

Another prevalent idea is that there are many young women having babies in order to go on a benefit because they can not think of anything better to do. Teenage women (those u nder 20 years) make up only 3. 7% of all women parenting alone (Department of Social Welfare: 1 997). The majority of women pal'enting alone were once partnered and have only one or two children challenging the idea that women have children as a means of qualifying for the Domestic Purposes benefit. Women disclosed their feelings of disempowermel1t on the macro level but on a micro level they were strong and resilient in their perceptions of power and control in their own lives, or at the very least in parts of their lives, for example in roles such as being a successful mother and a student. Frequently they observed that they felt more in control of their lives since separation. This point is supported by Crow and H ardey ( 1 9 9 1 ) . Both aspects, the feelings of powerlessness and an awareness of their strengths and skills, can be recognised and present at the same time. The negative messages received by women parentillg alone, that they are failures, u ndeserving, out of order and dependent on the government, which filter through, either directly or as subtexts, provide an ongoing context in which women battle to sustain self-esteem, while attending to the array of tasks which are part of being a single parent. The complicated and contradictory nature of the messages, which society and government are giving, is very confusing, as Sarah explains:

Sarah I got really mixed messages from society for example Jim Bolger said these people should be looking after their children and when we do he tells us what we do isn 't worth anything and that we should be getting out to the workforce so whatever we do is wrong. Michelle J think that .. . you know ... there 's lots of different myths and messages out there in society

and one of them is .. .you know .. . single mothers they don 't rate very high on the listing of things.

Of all beneficiaries those on the domestic purposes benefit, predominantly women, have been the main targets of punitive policies and criticism from government. The divisiveness of such approaches, which draw attention away from the needs of women in general, is a well worn tactic used by many political groups over time. The receipt of a benefit seems to entitle an array of officials the right to intrude in these women's lives. An example of this point is current moves by the government to monitor the care of children, with suggestions of substantial reductions in benefit levels for those who fail to comply with standards decided by others, with no questions raised as to why a requirement was unable to be met in the first place. Discussing disability issues Munford (1995) notes:

... the 'bodies' of people with intellectual disabilities are continually intruded upon ... [ they) name a range of groups such as medical and rehabilitation professionals, psychologists, social workers, funding providers, and policy analysts, who have the authority to intervene in the lives of people with disabilities, and have the authority to determine what will happen to individuals and what resources will be granted ( I O) .

As women in this study testify the rights of beneficiaries are always being eroded and their privacy invaded. For those women who are beneficiaries the line between the 'public' and the 'private' is increasingly blurred and where it is drawn, as Lister (199 1 :67) points out, is a political act. This line can be drawn in different places for different groups and individuals.

As a group these women would rather not be on a benefit recognising as they do the stigmatisation and loss of independence incurred.

Ann I personally didn 't have a problem with dealing with Income Support but other friends of mine who 've had to, have found it the most degrading thing in their lives. I got told all sorts of things like don 't wear makeup and don 't wear your best clothes and go in there like you 're really poor, and do the system and all this sort of thing. But I think the first day J ever went to Income Support was the day after I left my husband and I felt like I 'd

just been dragged through a desert. And 1 just sat there like this poor little person and said "] need to go on a benefit. " But ] didn 't feel too proud too. ] felt it was just a means to an end at that time.

In Australia the benefit take up rate peaked in 1986 at 84% and then declined in 1991 to 69%. This drop has been attributed to an increasing rate of labour participation. For Aotearoa/New Zealand this may mean that rather than blaming the beneficiary some careful attention should be paid to generating appropriate work opportunities as well as improving and extending the training assistance which is presently offered.

The next section will explore the expenence of women who have separated or divorced in terms of their housing circumstances, with a focus on issues arising out of the Matrimonial Property Act 1976.