In its simplest form, a concept map is a two-dimensional spatial representation of
information in the form of node-link-node sequences. The nodes represent the key terms or concepts and the links indicate the relationship perceived between nodes. Concepts shown on the nodes are usually hierarchical (Novak, 1995) and can therefore be ranked from the most general, inclusive concept to the most specific, least inclusive.
In general where concept maps are used as a means of eliciting or assessing what is known and nderstood, the enable this to be done from the learner s perspecti e rather than the assessor s. The also re eal hat is nderstood b the learner at a given moment in time. This is a crucial point because, as McAleese (1999) states, there is a potential tension bet een hat I think I kno and hat I can represent that I kno . The do not test what has been recalled or remembered, they indicate what meanings have been attributed to the content acquired or already held (Ghaye & Robinson, 1989) and as such they are partial representations. Therefore it is important to stress that commitment to the maps created is not necessary. If this is achieved concept maps can be a useful tool for helping students to externalise their constructions in ways that enable them to be reflected on, criticised and, because they are not fixed, to be changed.
Nursing research gives many examples of concept mapping used as a strategy for teaching and learning (Daley, 1996; All & Havens, 1997; Baugh & Mellott,1998; Wilkes et. al, 1999). Much of this research discusses distinctions between rote and meaningful learning, the latter being that which links new knowledge to related concepts already familiar to the
Chapter 6: Discussion of research tools
89 learner (Pinton & Zeitz, 1997). It is a strategy that takes account of educational theory abo t ho people learn, specificall that the most important single factor that infl ences learning is hat the learner alread kno s (All & Ha ens, 1997:1210). Establishment of what the learner already knows is crucial if new learning is to be assimilated into existing structures. In addition, meaningful learning (that which is retained over time) is most likely
hen the learner is enco raged to anchor ne ideas ith the establishment of links bet een old and ne material (All & Havens, 1997:1210). Concept mapping is a strategy that can enable this to take place because students can be invited to provide their own key terms (or nodes) and beca se the finished maps can be compared ith other st dents as well as with alternative conceptions from a range of sources such as the media (geography represented in cartoons, newspaper articles), geographical educators and the National Curriculum Programmes of Study. For example, Baugh and Mellott describe how concept mapping in student n rses clinical de elopment promotes critical thinking and as
st dents share and e plore trends in each others maps, the begin to see ariations in the te tbook pict res of patient conditions (Ba gh & Mellott, 1998: 255).
In teacher education Morine-Dershimer (1993) and Artiles et. al. (1994) used concept mapping as a tool for assessing changes in st dent teachers conceptions of planning and teaching and for assessing the link bet een preser ice teachers conceptions of planning and their interacti e beha io rs d ring classroom instr ction (Artiles et. al. 1994: 466) respectively. Also of relevance to this project is the work done by Fitchman Dana (1998)
ho as e ploring an alternati e teacher ed cation pedagog hich o ld pro ide preservice teachers ith alternati e perspecti es in a social st dies conte t (1998: 167). Fitchman Dana asked students to create pre- and post-course concept maps and evaluated these using a scoring rubric of descriptions that enabled differentiation between four levels of attainment. These concept maps ere also sed as a tool to help prospecti e teachers change their images of social st dies (1998: 176). This d al f nction of concept maps is partic larl sef l in q alitati e research hich is often based pon an emergent design, which requires the collection and analysis of evidence concurrently. It is research that is designed to facilitate the emergence of theor rather than establishing proof (Northcott, 1996:456). As such it is well suited to grounded theory research.
A criticism that has been made of concept maps that measure changes in conception before and after a teaching programme is that they often only measure short-term change (Artiles
Chapter 6: Discussion of research tools
90 et. al. 1994). This project addresses this by gathering data from students over a two-year period, not just during the taught element of the geography component of the PGCE course. Students were not asked to do a concept map at each point of data collection, but their annotated concept maps (see chapter 7) were used to prompt further discussion at each point. There is thus the opportunity to track development and change longitudinally and to evaluate the impact of conceptions on action in the classroom.
Other points to note about using concept maps are:
The act of creating a concept map can lead to st dents recognising ne relationships and hence ne meanings the did not conscio sl hold before making the map (No ak & Gowin, 1984:17)
Some students may find it harder to represent their ideas in a graphical format than others (Baugh & Mellott, 1998)
For this reason, attention needs to be gi en to de eloping st dents concept mapping skills if they are to be used as a formal assessment tool (Caelli, 1998)
Since it is recognised that concept maps onl represent a person s conception at a given moment in time, the first point was not considered to be a drawback. The second point deserves some consideration. It was acknowledged, during the pilot phase (see 6.1.2) that some students found representing their conceptions in the form of a concept map much more challenging than others. This could be due to different learning styles and ways of thinking. There was also the danger that some students may not have any sort of prior conception of geography (see chapter 7). However, the purpose of the concept maps was to form the basis of discussion during the stimulated recall interviews, during which students were explicitly asked whether they felt able to represent their conception successfully or not. This then enabled direct comparison between students conceptions represented
through the interviews with those represented through their concept maps. To address these and other concerns that might not be apparent, a pilot study on the use of concept maps as a tool for eliciting st dents conceptions was conducted.
Chapter 6: Discussion of research tools
91 6.1.2 Pilot study and impact on design and use of tools
The pilot study (appendix 19) revealed four issues relating to the efficacy of concept maps as an elicitation tool. Practical considerations (maps written in pencil or with coloured ink (green) ere not photocopiable) and contamination (st dents sat in gro ps and some of the maps were remarkably similar) were issues that could easily be resolved. However, ascertaining the value of the maps in terms of eliciting conceptions upon which statements about professional values could be made was more problematic.
Issue 1: For some students even the business of coming up with some key terms for the nodes was challenging. It is clear that, if geography has not been studied formally since the age of 14, conceptions of the subject may be so tentative and students may be so lacking in confidence that it is hard for them to get started. No amount of the tutor saying there was no right or rong ans er and that this e ercise as designed to capt re their conception
at that moment in time as going to make m ch difference.
Revision: Students were given the 8 key terms most commonly used by students in the pilot phase as a starting point for their concept map. It was stressed that they should use these only if they felt they wanted to, and that other nodes could be added as appropriate. Precedence for this has been shown by Willson and Williams (1996) who provided PGCE students with eleven concepts from which to create a concept map which then had the added benefit of making analysis and comparison of maps easier.
Issue 2: The very fact that concept maps are partial representations, subject to change, also led to doubts about the validity of the interpretations made in relation to the categories shown above for the pilot phase. This indicated the need to explore a means of analysing the concept maps more objectively and of enabling the students themselves to validate interpretations.
Revisions: A scoring system was devised for analysing the concept maps from which four broad categories of conceptions were identified. In addition, the concept maps and ideas about teaching and learning were analysed holistically against three classification systems
Chapter 6: Discussion of research tools
92 group was then interviewed using the stimulated recall interview technique (see 5.2.3) which would enable them to use their concept map as a stimulus for discussion, to expand on their conceptions, and to explore the degree of congr ence bet een the st dents and the researcher s interpretations and of their maps against the three classification s stems used.
Issue 3: The two ways in which students were asked to construct their concept map (one group asked to do it for Geographical Ed cation and the other Geograph ) re ealed interesting distinctions between the concept maps produced. Those from the former were more likely to incorporate children and some sort of active participation element into their maps, while those from the latter gave a clearer indication of their conception of geography as an academic subject.
Revisions: Reading had alread indicated that PGCE st dents conceptions of s bject ere often based on the academic view rather than educational one, and that this way of
conceptualising a subject is not necessarily the most helpful to them as teachers. Therefore the ere asked to do a concept map to represent their conception of Geograph .
However, their conceptions of teaching and learning were still relevant and so a second elicitation task was devised that asked them to choose one aspect of their concept map, to describe state how they might teach it, and then to explain why they would teach it in this way (table 6.1).
CONTENT What teaching methods would you use / How would you teach this?
Why would you use these methods?
What would be the gains for the children?
Table 6.1: Proforma sed to elicit st dents conceptions of teaching and learning geography
Chapter 6: Discussion of research tools
93 Issue 4: In the pilot study students were asked to do a second concept map in the final session of the geography component of the PGCE course. This did not go well because some did not see the relevance and therefore did not want to do it, many of the maps were hurried and clearly not thought through, and some said they were too tired to focus on such a task (the sessions were in the week directly after their first block school experience). Revision: In order to reduce the amount of thought and time needed, and to provide a greater sense of purpose to the task, students were asked to annotate a copy of their concept map to show how their conception had developed or changed since the first session. This was then used as the basis for a discussion which led to a formal evaluation of learning in the geography component.
6.1.3 Conducting the elicitation activities.