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In accordance with the views of Stuber et al. (2011) this study identified a continuous process by which gender differences were perceived and taught through interactions within the family and the schools’ settings (Sections 5.1.2, 5.2.3 and 5.2.4). The teachers’ and students’ perceptions of gender are born out of a socially constructed view about gender (Butler, 2007). Similar to the study of Chang et al. (2011) this study also identified the continuous dissemination (i.e. social reproduction) of these gender roles through the process of socialisation (Sections 5.2.3 and 5.2.4).

6.4.1 Teachers’ perspectives about gender and the choice of Mathematics at A-level

Gender construction (the means by which gender differences are seen and imparted within social settings) was identified through the way teachers explained differences in student participation in A-level Mathematics. Some teachers perceived that male students appeared to be more confident in Mathematics class than female students, as reflected in male students’ readiness to ask and respond to questions in class. However, it is not appropriate to judge the students’ level of confidence in Mathematics only through outward responses in the classroom. In School A for instance, teachers believed that gender differences in student participation in classroom activities or in open responses to teachers’ questions changes in different years. Girls’

183 confidence in Mathematics was found by VanLeuvan (2004) to have a direct influence on their attitude towards learning Mathematics. Therefore, any issue that affects the confidence of girls towards Mathematics affects their attitude towards the subject as well (VanLeuvan, 2004). As a teacher in School C explained: a girl graded ‘B’ in GCSE Mathematics may not think this grade is good enough to study A-level Mathematics, whereas a boy with the same grade may be prepared to have a go. Similarly, a teacher in School A explained that due to the fact girls generally perform better than boys at GCSE level in a range of subjects a grade 'B' in GCSE Mathematics for a girl may not necessarily be one of her best grades but for a boy this same grade may be one of his best results. In this situation the boy’s options are more restricted than that of the girl’s.

Some of the teachers in the study perceived differences between male and female students’ approaches to learning and answering questions. For instance, one teacher stated:

“Girls tend to be more structured and methodical in their work and boys tend to be more haphazard with it. That has [an] implication on what happens later on. In A-level, girls write down too much [whereas] boys do not write down enough. So you try to strike that balance, obviously there are always people the other way round but in general that is what I have found.”

Hargreaves et al. (2008) believe that in Mathematics the attitudes of teachers and parents are usually a reflection of the stereotypical idea about superiority of males over females. Even though the teachers in this study had found differences in attitude between male and female students towards learning Mathematics, there was no evidence that these differences reflected the teachers' stereotypes regarding superiority in terms of performance of one gender over the other.

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6.4.2 Students’ perspectives about gender and the choice of Mathematics at A-level

In accordance with the views of the teachers in this study, the students also believed there were gender differences in preference of subjects (Section 5.2.3 and 5.2.4). According to Jarvela and Järvenoja (2011) students’ perceptions are thoughts, beliefs, and feelings about the persons, situations and events which have been influenced by their past experiences. Social factors, therefore, influence the choices students make in their subject selection. One such factor is the domination of specific professions by one gender. One student stated:

Paul: “Subjects like architecture [and] engineering are more male heavy and they all require Maths.”

The social construction of gender is a continuous process among the students. Examples of gender-stereotype statements that are being formed include:

“Boys mostly study science and engineering which are linked to Maths.” “It is considered to be more of a boy’s subject due to traditional views.” “Boys stereotypically will do engineering requiring Maths.”

“Boys might be discouraged from doing ‘girls’ subjects such as dance and textiles so instead choose subjects like Maths.”

The students in the sample were of the view that at GCSE level in general, girls are more serious with their learning than boys. These are some of the reasons cited for male students underperforming in GCSE Mathematics:

“Girls have better concentration [so are] more likely to revise and [are] more organised.”

“I believe there are more mature girls than boys … mature pupils do more work and this gets them higher grades.”

“Girls try harder but are not interested in Maths.”

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“Girls can generally be more systematic and organised with work which I think is necessary to gain full understanding of Maths.”

“…. girls know that they are rubbish [and] therefore work harder.”

The above responses show a positive image of girls towards learning in general. These positive images about girls can thus contribute to a positive learning environment which can affect both genders, especially where the number of girls is greater than boys. These findings are in support of Lavy and Schlosser (2011) who attributed the enhanced performance of both boys and girls, where the population of girls was more than boys, to less distractive and less violent classrooms. The above responses from both male and female students also provide evidence of the existence of gender stereotyping, but do not provide evidence that the process is continuous.

In the 1980s female students were classified as being weaker in their mathematical abilities than male students (Steele, 2010). However, the findings of this study refute that (Figures 5, 7 and 9). The improvement in the female students’ mathematical abilities is, however, not reflected in the proportion of girls to boys studying A-level Mathematics.