4.2. CONSIDERACIONES
4.2.2.3. Access Point (Punto de acceso)
Vanuatu is situated in a sub-tropical climatic zone and experiences nine months of hot, humid and rainy weather, with the possibility of tropical cyclones followed by months of cooler and drier weather with winds coming from the south-east (VNSO, 2009a). Vanuatu lies in a tropical cyclone belt and may experience several damaging cyclones per year (ADB, 1997). Consequently, the tourism sector will be more vulnerable to cyclone intensity increases.
141 Santo is not only the largest island of Vanuatu, but also has the nation’s four largest peaks, all more than 1,700 metres tall (Harewood et al., 2006). These peaks run along the western side of the island; where the south-eastern part of the island is much flatter, which has led to the arrival of cattle grazing and plantations (Harewood et al., 2006). The high nature of this island means that it may be more resilient to sea level rise than some of the atoll islands in Vanuatu.
It is in the south-eastern part of the island that Luganville is located along the Segond Channel. Luganville’s wide main street runs for kilometres along the coast line. This location next to Segond Channel, which is protected by nearby islands (i.e. Aore, Bokissa, Malo and Tutuba) means that the destination may be less likely to be significantly affected by a tsunami38, although further research is needed to confirm this. On the other hand, the coastline within the town looks rugged and eroded, which may leave the destination more vulnerable to storm surges and cyclones.
“Vanuatu’s marine environment includes inter-tidal sea-grass beds, mangroves, lagoons, coral reefs and open ocean” (ADB, 1997, p. 261).The reefs around Luganville are primarily fringing reefs, which act as a resource for subsistence fishing and as tourism attractions for many communities in the Pacific (Maclellan et al., 2009). There are only a few areas of patched reefs. An overview of the depths of reefs is provided in Figure 4- 4:A, highlighting that the reefs occur at both shallow and mixed depths (Tupper et al., n.d.). The reef systems in Vanuatu are not as extensive as in other destinations due to deep waters often being close to shore, but they are important as a natural buffer to waves and storm surges (ADB, 2002).
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143 Figure 4-4:B provides an overview of the reefs at risk near Luganville. It shows that the majority of reefs around Luganville are under very high threat in at least three of the Reefs at Risk threat factors (i.e. coastal development; marine-based pollution; over- exploitation of marine resources; and inland pollution, including sedimentation). This will ultimately leave the reefs and other marine species that are sensitive to changes in the marine environment (e.g. acidification, sea surface temperature increases and cyclones) more stressed (Micheli et al., 2012).
The dive attractions in Luganville are based more on WWII wreckage, possibly leaving the destination more resilient to changes in the ecosystem characteristics. Furthermore, dive operators indicated that the types of corals in the area of Santo are more resilient to increases in water temperatures, compared to those around EfateA. Specific research needs to test this hypothesis, as sound evidence is lacking to support this argument. Nevertheless, the protection of these reefs as natural buffers will be crucial to ensuring that this in-built resilience remains.
For the land-based ecosystem characteristics, Vanuatu has a high soil fertility allowing for favourable conditions for agriculture and pastoral development (ADB, 1997). This makes the destination more resilient, as this will ensure food production for sustenance can continue, unless dramatic changes occur. Subsistence farming plays a significant role in the economy of Vanuatu and its significance may be underestimated (ADB, 1997). Subsistence farming includes the growing of coconuts, root crops and a wide range of fruits, nuts and vegetables as well as building and weaving material (ADB, 1997). Much of the original forests of Vanuatu have been cleared to cater for agricultural and logging needs (ADB, 1997). Luganville is surrounded by coconut plantations, which on many occasions also are used for cattle grazing. The combination of tourism and agricultural infrastructure allows for resilience that would not be possible within their individual infrastructures.
There is a range of natural and cultural attractions that act as pull factors in the TDR (McIntosh et al., 1995; Gunn, 1994). As Gunn (1994) pointed out, “the attractions of a destination constitute the most powerful component of the supply side of tourism” (p. 57). Figure 4-5 provides a photo collage of the various attractions that can be found in Luganville and surrounds. The following describes the main TDR attractions in Luganville’s dive tourism system further.
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FIGURE 4-5: A PHOTO COLLAGE OF LUGANVILLE’S DIVE DESTINATION ATTRACTIONS
The key attractions for diving in Luganville and Santo include the SS President Coolidge (a.k.a. the Coolidge), Million Dollar Pointxx, smaller wrecks, coral reef sites and blue holes. The Coolidge, an American World War II (WWII) carrier wreck located off the coast of Luganville, “is the largest shipwreck within normal diving depth anywhere in the world” (ADB, 1997, p. 219). It is considered one of the world’s most accessible wrecks and is considered the 14th best dive site in the world (Garrod & Gössling, 2008). The Million Dollar Point is an “undersea junkyard” and a memory of the presence of the US military during WWII (Harewood et al., 2006). Table 4-4 presents an overview of known diving spots near Luganville.
xx“...we headed to Million Dollar Point and went snorkelling. There were a few locals around but no
tourists and no infrastructure whatsoever. A makeshift sign at the turn off tells you that you have arrived and how much you need to pay. It was a few hundred Vatu... ...The snorkelling was excellent. There is all sort of junk from the Americans: 1940s cars, machinery and... ...a tank... ...It is really odd to see all that stuff down there, although apparently all the pollution coming from the junk is poisoning the fish. The whole area is now a coral reef and fish have moved in. We saw a lionfish, many colourful reef species and Christmas tree worms...”FD2, 2 October 2010
145 TABLE 4-4: KNOWN DIVING SPOTS NEAR LUGANVILLE, ESPIRITU SANTO, SANMA PROVINCE
Diving spot reference
Location Brief description of attractions Depth range (feet) Condition Current Visibilities (feet) President Coolidge** Santo (off Luganville) World War II wreck*** 70-240 Moderate/ Strong 50-60 Million Dollar Point** Santo (off Luganville) World War II equipment dump 80-120 slight 50-60
Chails Reef* Mid west of Tutuba Island
Hard and leather coral, fishes
25-150 Calm 100+
Tutuba Point* Northern tip of Tutuba Island
Excellent corals/caves and diverse fish
40-100 Slight 100
USS Tucker* South west of Malo World War II wreck 60-70 Slight 70+ Elephant Wall* South of Elephant Island Sea wall, spectacular marine life 10-150 Calm/ Slight Clear Blue Coral Gardens* West of Elephant Island Pristine coral gardens*** 10-50 Calm Clear Grand Canyon Wall*
Sea wall with teeming fishes
Coral herds, canyons, large fish
40-130 Calm/ Slight
Clear
Sakao Wall North east Sakao
island Beautiful hard corals, sea fans/whips 30-170 Moderate/ Strong 100+
*Accessible by boat only, **Accessible by boat and shore, ***Diving expertise necessary + shore access Source: Adapted from Republic of Vanuatu, n.d., pp 70-71 whose source was Bowdey, B. Beaty, J., Answell B., (1995) Diving and Snorkelling Guide Vanuatu
A number of land-based WWII sites also remain as relics of the US military’s presence in Luganville. There are a number of plane wrecksxxi just outside of Luganville and a number of buildings from this period still stand in Luganville, including the old prison and some of the hangarsxxii. Apart from the WWII cultural sites, cultural attractions in Luganville also include a visit to a local cultural villagexxiii. Here, visitors get to experience a warm welcome from the local villagers, a kavaxxiv ceremony where the
xxi“...From here [the site of President Coolidge], we went to the plane crash site and saw the wreckage.
It was interesting to see how much [of the plane] was left, but was creepy walking through the remains particularly, as six people had died there in the crash...”FD1, 10 October 2010
xxii“…We started by seeing some of the old sheds that the American had built during WWII…Then our
tour guide showed us the old prison used by the Americans, which is no longer used because of human rights.”FD1, 10 October 2010
xxiii“Then we went to the local cultural village, which is the only one in Luganville putting on a display of
dances and other traditional activities, such as kava and weaving…”FD1, 10 October 2010
xxivKava is a ceremonial drink made from the roots of the kava plant, which are either chewed or crunched
from the dried root and mixed with water, leaving a muddy water that is ready to drink. It is known for its relaxing qualities and may leave tongue and lips numb for a short period of time.
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guests have the opportunity to try the Pacific custom, observe the weaving of baskets, see local dances, and have the opportunity to taste a range of local foods before getting to experience the traditional water musicxxv.
Other attractions include the Millennium Caves, one of the largest groups of caves in Vanuatu. According to a public sector respondent, “participants need to be fit, [and] need to have strong muscles”37
to visit the Millennium Caves. Other adventure activities include canoeing, using local made canoes, and kayaking. For the less adventurous nature-based tourist, visitors can also visit Vatthe (one of the largest conservation areas in Vanuatu across 2,200 ha.), the Loru protected area, or Champagne Beach, which is known for its beauty and serenity. Champagne Beach is also one of the destinations for cruise ships arriving in Santo. On cruise ship days, the beach transforms from one of natural serenityxxvi to that of a colourful and bustling scenexxvii.
4.2.3.2 Host Community
Apart from the attractions, the host community also plays an important role in the TGR (McIntosh et al., 1995). In 1995, Luganville was described as a tourist centre precinct in the final report of the Vanuatu Tourism Development Master Plan, which stated:
“As a community, Luganville is reminiscent of a frontier town with commercial and business activities sparsely strung out along a wide main street paralleling Segond Channel. There is no real town center, and most development has virtually turned its back to the waterfront. The only significant public waterfront area is Unity Park and the adjoining small peninsula at the mouth of Sarakata River…” (UNEP & UNWTO, 1995, p. 101).
xxv “...we went to see the ten water songs, which for me was the highlight of the cultural tour. There was
a small pool with flowers in it and a dozen girls and women stood in the water ready to play music by clapping their hands in the water. Each song had a different meaning. There were songs about the cyclones and about specific fish (e.g. the Mullet jumping out of the water). It was a really beautiful and unique experience...”FD1, 10 October 2010
xxvi “...We visited Champagne beach where all the cruise ships take their passengers. The sand is almost
white and it is staggeringly beautiful with amazing water colours in all shades of blue. The backdrop is a dramatic steep wall of vegetation along the coast... ...There is a small fee to get into champagne beach and along the beach were several empty stalls where locals sell souvenirs when the cruise ship visitors come to the beach...”FD2, 03 October 2010
xxvii“...We got to the hill a little past 9am and could see the big cruise ship at anchor in the middle of the
“bay”. We took the turn off to Champagne Beach, paid the 2,000 Vatu [in] entrance fee and continued to the beach. We could see the cruise ship outside the local resort [that] we had visited on the Sunday after we arrived to Santo. As we drove along, we met a couple of the buses taking tourists on tours. When we arrived to the beach, it was like another world. There were cars everywhere and so much life...”FD1, 8 October 2010
147 Luganville is the second largest urban area of Vanuatu. The population of Luganville has grown from 5,200 residents in 1979 to 13,167 residents in 2009 (ADB, 2002; VNSO, 2009a). Close to 40 per cent of Vanuatu’s population is under the age of 15 and only 5 per cent of the population is aged above 60 years (VNSO, 2009a). The province of Sanma is the second largest province after Shefa (province of Port Vila, Efate) in terms of wages (approximately 30 per cent) and salaries (60 per cent) as part of the overall household income (VNSO, 2009a). This indicates that tourism (as one of the few paid employment options) is a key player in contributing to the economy of the population. Furthermore, sale of fish, crops and handicrafts is a significant contributor to household income in Sanma, accounting for approximately 50 per cent (VNSO, 2009a).
In recent years there has been a migration trend towards urban areas of Vanuatu (i.e. Port Vila and Luganville). Village people are attracted to the urban areas by the hope of greater material wealth and because of the decreasing amount of land available for the cultivation of crops (ADB, 1997), as a result of the increasing population. However, an increase in urban population numbers has put substantial pressure on the urban infrastructure in Luganville (ADB, 2002). Apart from inadequate water and sanitation services, it also brings with it issues of growing squatter settlements, increasing unemployment and crime levels in the urban areas (ADB, 1997). Consequently, the
“...government’s challenge is to plan for urban development. Currently, focus is on rural development. They need to change the focus to urban development.”28
Climate change with its effects has the ability to cause large-scale migration both within a country and to other countries (Maclellan et al., 2009). Maclellan et al. (2009) highlight this issue of climate displacement and predict that 75 million people within the Asia-Pacific will become climate refugees by 2050. With the current issues related to ensuring sufficient sanitation and access to potable water, mentioned earlier, such large- scale climate change migration will become a real issue in the future.
Luganville, like the rest of Vanuatu, is very culturally diverse; a total of 105 languages are spoken but the overarching language of Bislama is spoken by all (ADB, 2002). A private sector respondent commented that there is a “...good community feel [in Luganville]. We all work together and learn kastoms [Bislama word for customs] from
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different islands. We all speak Bislama”43. Harewood et al. (2006) describe the population of Santo in the following way:
“Santo has an interesting mix of city slickers, who live along the southern and eastern seaboards, balanced by villagers who are quite isolated, dress in clothes woven from the leaves of the jungle, and are totally self-sufficient” (p. 127).
This shows the positive aspect of the migration to urban centres, but high levels of immigration from country areas can also pose challenges. According to another respondent, there is some tension between the Ni-Vanuatu and the expatriate community members but “over time, hopefully, tolerance is learned in order to run a multicultural society”51.
The majority of the infrastructure (including electricity generation, fuel storage facilities, hospitals, police stations and schools, main commercial centres and road networks) is located in the coastal zone of the island, which is only few metres above sea level (Republic of Vanuatu et al., 2007). This is common to SIDSTs (Sem & Moore, 2009). The tourism infrastructure is also primarily coastal. Such coastal closeness causes the built environment to be more exposed to cyclones, storm surges, flooding and coastal inundation. Recent observations made in relation to sea level rises in Vanuatu show increases that are larger than at the global level (2.8-3.6mm per year) with increases of about 6mm per annum since 1993, according to satellite data (AusAID et al., 2011). This will leave Luganville “…affected by even small increases in sea levels due to the larger surges associated with increased frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones” (Republic of Vanuatu et al., 2007, p. 17).
Important infrastructure data from 2004 states that in Vanuatu: (1) 24 per cent of roads are paved; (2) there are 87.8 km of road per 1000 km2; (3) 19 per cent of households have electricity connected; and (4) that urban areas have 90.5 per cent households with improved water supply compared to 70.8 per cent in rural areas (COA, 2009). This indicates that urban areas are less sensitive to change than rural areas, but that the level of resilience can still be improved significantly. Since 2004, Vanuatu has seen significant road works undertaken under the US Millennium Challenge Account (MCA). Vanuatu was the only country in the South Pacific to gain a US$40 million grant from the US to improve the economy of the nation through the upgrading of infrastructure (Harewood et al., 2006). The key outcomes of the US MCA project are a
149 road around the island of Efate and a road on Santo stretching from just outside of Luganville to Port Olry on the north-eastern coast of the island. The new US MCA road infrastructure has been received with open arms, but some respondents wondered why this was given priority when the existing road network is falling apart. As one public sector respondent mentioned, the “new road is great, but the main town road is full of pot holes and not up to the standard. Not up to the standard in promoting Luganville, as a destination”45
.
The materials used in the construction of buildings also greatly influence the exposure levels of Luganville’s destination population (see Calgaro, 2010). The construction of buildings in Luganville reflects the different types of building methods applied in Vanuatu generally (Vanuau Disaen Limited, 2009), including:
Traditional building methods (primarily used at the outskirts of towns and in rural areas);
Timber framed constructions (not a dominant building method in Vanuatu, but a cheap and quick way to produce interior partitions, which is vulnerable to flood damage);
Structural steel buildings (growing in popularity and often used when constructing agricultural buildings, airplane hangars, churches, commercial and industrial buildings, and sporting arenas—but is not applied often in the residential building market and is vulnerable to flood damage);
Solid panel construction (used for residential buildings, but is vulnerable to flood damage unless constructed on piers);
Steel reinforced concrete block constructions (the dominant construction system in Vanuatu, but is vulnerable to “concrete cancer”—a condition relating to moisture and oxygen seeping into cracks of the concrete and affecting the internal reinforcing steel—and have high consumption of sand); and
Interlocking aerated concrete block construction (this more flood tolerant structure has only recently been introduced to Vanuatu, but is also vulnerable to “concrete cancer”).
In the peri-urban areas of Luganville and in many of the rural villages, thatched roofs are common. Miles (2006) describes the traditional buildings of the island of Santo in the following quote, which was about his visit to the Fortsénalé village on Santo: