According to Abhidharma teachings presented by Guenther and Kawamura (1975) “in Buddhist psychology ‘mind’ and ‘mental events’ are concepts by intuition whose complete meaning is given by something immediately apprehendable, and as such they are denotatively given particulars” (1975, xxv). In other words, the Abhidharma views the mind as being relevant or tangible only within its own application to different objects. Rejecting the concept of a central point within the mind (which would mean the existence of a self) Buddhism argues that the mind is itself an “event” (Guenther and Kawamura 1975, xxvi). For example, the function of the mental event of non-attachment/detachment is to provide the basis for “not being caught up in evil action” (Appendix B, 3).
It is thus considered a Positive Mental Event that leads the individual towards wholesome activities. It does not, however, serve the purpose of assisting the individual in developing a sense of wholesome or unwholesome identity, as such a purpose would implicate the individual to subscribe to a tangible self (Guenther and Kawamurra 1975, 43).
However, Buddhism does acknowledge that by choosing “appreciative discrimination” over “ego-centered demands” the individual can “discover the potential for growth and health that is in us and to develop it so that we might, and could, grow more and more into a human being” (Guenther and Kawamura 1975,
xxvii-xxviii). “Ego-centered demands,” on the other hand, are seen as an “attempt to impose on and to interfere with all and everything,” cutting ourselves off “from the possibility of seeing ourselves as unique and whole human beings” … “making everything no more than a means to our selfish, if not paranoid, ends” (Guenther and Kawamura 1975, xxvii-xxviii). The authors state that “it is for this reason that the ‘Positive Mental Events,’ as aids to growth, play such a prominent role in the analysis of ‘mind’” (Guenther and Kawamura 1975, xxviii). The turmoil that human beings perpetually experience within their own minds whilst caught on the wheel of samsara is considered incentive enough for the individual to seek out a solution. Abhidharma teachings on mental events and emotions are considered valuable tools in working towards a permanent solution.
The following lists constitute theAbhidharma categories of experiential events (Varela, Thompson and Rosch 1991, 256-8). Similar lists also appear in Mind in Buddhist Psychology (Guenther and Kawamura 1975, 18-99) and in The Mind and Its Functions (Rabten 1992, 124-62). Whilst minor differences exist between the
presentation of factors, lists are for the most part similar: 1. Aggregates
i) Forms;
ii) Feelings/sensations;
iii) Perceptions (discernments)/impulses; iv) Dispositional formations; and
v) Consciousness. 2. The Processes of Mind
i) Consciousness as the fifth aggregate: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile and mental consciousness; and
ii) Mental events (the fourth aggregate, inherently including the second and third aggregates):
1. Positive/wholesome mental events: confidence/trust/faith; self- respect; decorum/consideration for others; non-
attachment/detachment; non-hatred; non-deludedness/non- bewilderment; diligence/enthusiasm; alertness/suppleness; concern/conscientiousness; equanimity and non-violence; 2. Basic negative/unwholesome emotions: attachment; anger;
arrogance/self-importance; lack of intrinsic awareness/ignorance; indecision; opinionatedness/afflicted views; and
3. Derivative/proximate negative/unwholesome mental events: indignation/wrath; resentment; slyness-concealment; spite; jealousy/envy; avarice; deceit/pretension; dishonesty; mental inflation; malice/cruelty; shamelessness; lack of sense of propriety/inconsideration for others; gloominess/dullness; ebullience/restlessness/distraction; lack of trust/faithlessness; laziness; unconcern/unconscientiousness; forgetfulness; inattentiveness and desultoriness/non-discernment.
Mental events and emotions of the Abhidharma and the characteristics of the Vedic triguna offer the individual a guide for achieving liberation from material involvement, although the individual’s destination after achieving such liberation is
treated very differently by the two approaches. Both approaches maintain that the quality of life on Earth experienced by all living beings can be improved whilst they are still materially embodied, by choosing to invest in purer and more virtuous psychological and behavioural qualities. The Abhidharma’sPositive Mental Events and the triguna’ssattvaguna characteristics (see sections 2.2.3 and 2.2.5) thereby encourage the individual to enhance his/her awareness, sense of morality, sensitivity towards oneself and towards others, knowledge and conscientiousness in general, with the understanding that such improvements will ultimately result in more favourable circumstances for all concerned.
The triguna’ssattvaguna characteristics and the Abhidharma’s
positive/wholesome mental events can thus be appreciated as representing ideal qualities of consciousness, whilst rajas and tamasguna characteristics and
negative/unwholesome Abhidharma factors can be appreciated as representing less- than-ideal or even vulgar qualities of consciousness. Although this is theoretically correct, it must be stated that the Vedic conception of what constitutes ultimate ideal qualities of consciousness are those pertaining to the suddha-sattva platform (the spiritual mode of goodness) which is above the mundane sattvaguna. For the
purposes of this thesis, however, as the suddha-sattva platform of consciousness will not be included in data-collection or processing, the material mode of goodness (sattvaguna) is accepted as representing ideal or the best qualities of consciousness which scientists may aspire towards. This premise is congruent with triguna
methodology itself, which stipulates that attainment of suddha-sattva qualities of consciousness is cumbersome to achieve without first predominating within the mundane sattvaguna.
Furthermore, the mundane sattvaguna does, in itself, contain certain
characteristics that portray the individual’s inherent interests in spiritual matters, which one may ordinarily expect to find within an ordinary population of different personalities. Such sattvic characteristics include having faith in spiritual life in general; being pious and religious and being aware of a higher spiritual nature; and maintaining a rudimentary interest in spiritual matters (Bhaktivedanta 1987-8, 11:25:24-7; 1989, 18:20-2). In other words, whilst suddha-sattva characteristics can not be included in data collection and processing, sattvic characteristics addressing scientists’ rudimentary interest in spiritual matters can be. A similar situation appears within the context of Abhidharma factors, as is discussed below.
In addition to the attainment of the above listed virtues of the Noble Eightfold Path and the cultivation of Positive Mental Events of the Abhidharma, Buddhist elevation of consciousness is also necessarily accompanied by the accomplishment of certain paramitas (perfections), or paramis in the Pali language. The following list appears in A Treatise on the Paramis (Dhammapala 1996, 10-3), in Buddhist
Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines (Nyanatiloka Maha Thera 2004, 25-6) and in The Path of Purification (Buddhaghosa 2004, IX: 124):
1. Giving; 2. Morality/virtue; 3. Renunciation; 4. Transcendental wisdom/understanding; 5. Energy; 6. Patience/forbearance;
7. Truthfulness/does not deceive; 8. Determination/resolution;
9. Loving-kindness; and 10. Equanimity.
Whilst it would be unreasonable to expect Australian Antarctic scientists to
achieve perfections that are considered goals for individuals whose lives are fashioned specifically to achieve higher spiritual goals, most Theravada perfections show
correlation with characteristics of the triguna, which pertains to mundane
characteristics only.This correlation is substantiated by the argument of the Vedanta, that liberation from material bondage according to Buddhist principles (impersonal liberation) does not properly or permanently deliver the jiva above the material realm. In other words, what Buddhism calls liberation from samsara, the wheel of repeated birth and death, does not, in the eyes of the Vedas, afford the individual permanent liberation. As this is so, the Vedas do not recognise many of the Buddhist paramitas (perfections) as necessarily leading to ultimate spiritual realisation or enlightenment, but rather to the materially elevated platform of partial spiritual realisation (mundane sattva guna) of the Supreme Absolute Truth, which is the person Lord Krishna. The Complete Abhidharma Factors Guide and Guide for Assessing Correlation between the Triguna and the Abhidharma (CAFG-GACTA) created specifically for the purposes of this thesis, outlines correlation between Abhidharma factors and triguna characteristics in detail. Most perfections share some affiliation with sattva guna characteristics. The perfection of energy is affiliated with certain rajasic
characteristics. The perfection of transcendental wisdom/understanding corresponds with the suddha-sattva characteristic remaining neutral and transcendental, knowing that the modes (triguna) alone are active within this material world (Bhaktivedanta 1989, 14:22-5).
In other words, the Theravada perfection of transcendental wisdom/understanding is likened to the suddha-sattvic quality of understanding the real nature of natural phenomena and their manifestation according to higher spiritual causal factors. The tenth perfection of equanimity and the Positive Mental Event of equanimity both correspond with the suddha-sattva characteristics of remaining undisturbed regardless of favourable or unfavourable material circumstances and being equipoised in both happiness and distress. As scientists are not being evaluated on transcendental qualities of consciousness, but rather on the qualities of their materially conditioned consciousness, the Positive Perfections of transcendental wisdom/understanding and equanimity and the Positive Mental Event of equanimity will thus not be included in data-collecting and processing. Although scientists will not be evaluated as to their capacities for maintaining spiritual or transcendental insight into their work, certain data-collection items offer scientists the opportunity to give their opinions on the potential role of such factors, as well as the opportunity to disclose their general interest in such matters.
It is important here to also note that just as the mundane sattvaguna
accommodates the individual’s initial or foundational interests in spiritual matters, likewise certain Abhidharma Positive Mental Events represent the individual’s rudimentary interests in spiritual life. Relevant factors include the Positive Mental Events of non-attachment/detachment and non-deludedness/non-bewilderment. Non- attachment/ detachment is described by the CAFG-GACTA as that which “withdraws us from a compulsive involvement with the object through an understanding of its true nature… It is to not be attached to any specific material circumstance, object or to material life in general” (Appendix B, 3). Non-deludedness/non-bewilderment is described as “awareness to counteract the deludedness that has its cause in either what
one has been born into or what one has acquired (one’s material circumstances)” (Appendix B, 4).
It should be noted here that whilst the above listed ten perfections are not
traditionally discussed as belonging to the teachings of Abhidharma, they nevertheless belong to the Buddhist Theravada school of which the Abhidharma forms one part. For this reason and for the reason of being economical with words, Theravada Abhidharmamental events, emotions and Theravada perfections are collectively referred to as ‘Abhidharma factors’ throughout this thesis. As perfections represent ideal qualities attainable by the individual, they are considered wholesome or positive. A complete list of Abhidharma factors, including descriptions of factors, appears in the CAFG-GACTA in Appendix B.
Throughout this thesis, categories of Abhidharma factors are referred to as Factor Groups. These constitute:
1. Positive Mental Factors; 2. Negative Mental Factors; 3. Negative Emotions; and 4. Positive Perfections.
The categories of Positive Mental Events and Positive Perfections are further combined as Factor Contrast Group 1 (representing positive or wholesome
Abhidharma factors), whilst the categories of Negative Mental Events and Negative Emotions are together referred to as Factor Contrast Group 2 (representing negative or unwholesome Abhidharma factors). A comprehensive list of Abhidharma factors, as well as descriptions of their implications for human behaviour, appears in the CAFG- GACTA. Whilst not systematised in the same fashion as the triguna, Abhidharma mental events, emotions and perfections may be organised as follows:
TABLE 2.3.4.1: Systematisation of Abhidharma Factors POSITIVE/WHOLESOME
QUALITY NEGATIVE/UNWHOLESOME QUALITY
MENTAL EVENTS
Confidence/trust/faith; self-respect; decorum/consideration for others; non-attachment/detachment; non- hatred; non-deludedness/non-
bewilderment; diligence/enthusiasm; alertness/suppleness;
concern/conscientiousness; equanimity and non-violence.
Indignation/wrath; resentment; slyness-concealment; spite; jealousy/envy; avarice; deceit/pretension; dishonesty; mental inflation; malice/cruelty; shamelessness; lack of sense of propriety/inconsideration for others; gloominess/dullness; ebullience/distraction/restlessness; lack of trust/faithlessness; laziness; unconcern/unconscientiousness; forgetfulness; inattentiveness and desultoriness/non-discernment.
EMOTIONS - Attachment; anger; arrogance/self-importance; lack of intrinsic awareness/ignorance; indecision; opinionatedness/afflicted views.
PERFECTIONS Giving; morality/virtue; renunciation; transcendental
wisdom/understanding; energy; patience/forbearance; truthfulness/ does not deceive; determination/ resolution; loving-kindness; and equanimity.
-
In this way Abhidharma mental events, emotions and perfections can be
systematised according to either positive/conducive or negative/detrimental qualities for purposes of aiding the individual to act responsibly and to dedicate him/herself to the “seriousness of living” (Guenther and Kawamura 1975, xvi). Abhidharma mental events have thereby been described as “most comprehensive in being a growth and health psychology” (Guenther and Kawamura 1975, xvii). The lack of ‘positive’ emotions in the above table is indicative of the general Buddhist perspective that emotions are hindrances for the individual who aims to advance on the path towards enlightenment. Visa versa, the lack of negative perfections reflects the idealistic nature of perfections i.e. perfections represent ideal goals to be strived for and are therefore not relevant in the negative contrast.
In the words of Bodhi (2005) “the Buddha asks us to stop drifting thoughtlessly through our lives and instead to pay careful attention to simple truths that are everywhere available to us, clamoring for the sustained consideration they deserve” (Bodhi 2005, 19). One of these truths is stated as being that inevitably all living beings will grow old, fall ill and die as unavoidable consequences of material
embodiment. In Bhagavad-gita As It Is (1989, 13:8-12) Bhaktivedanta lists the same problems of material embodiment, stating that “unless we have a pessimistic view of this material life, considering the distresses of birth, death, old age and disease, there is no impetus for our making advancement in spiritual life.” Both Buddhism and Vedic teachings thus view material embodiment as a malady that the individual is encouraged to put an end to. Both schools of thought also agree that it is due to humankind’s attachment to sensual pleasures/sense gratification (Bhaktivedanta 1987- 8, 1:18:45, 5:5:16; 1989, 4:26; Bodhi 2005, 35, 194-205) that the quality of life on Earth (experienced by all species) including the condition of the natural global environment, is currently poor.
2.4 Conclusion
Is it a futile idea to even suggest that scientists should pay attention to the quality of their own consciousness and to take steps to changing current qualitative levels if they were identified as being less-than-ideal, ineffective, unfavourable or detrimental to environmental care? Whilst the investigation carried out in this thesis can not answer such questions, it can determine scientists’ current qualitative levels of consciousness according to Buddhist and Vedic perspectives. Whilst scientists may or may not choose to act according to relevant findings, awareness of findings by scientists and/or other academics, as well as by society at large, may be pivotal in instigating change. The ontological and epistemological foundations of Vedic and Buddhist
approaches to quality of consciousness are considered compatible. However, Vedic theoretical constructs have been chosen over Buddhist constructs to represent the main methodology applied in designing data collection items and data processing
techniques in order to satisfy the thesis objective. This choice has been made for the reason that the Vedic triguna is considered as offering a more consistent and profound categorisation scheme for analysing qualitative levels of consciousness, than what the BuddhistAbhidharma factors offer. Specific reasons include:
1. As a psychological categorisation scheme, the Vedic triguna is supported by detailed cosmological explanations of the manifestation of the triguna (Bhaktivedanta 1987-8, 11:chap. 24, chap 25; Burger 169-72; Kaur and Sinha 1992, 27; Wolf 1999, 1379) enhancing its theoretical strength, as well as its credibility. Similar explanations of the manifestation of consciousness in relation to inert matter have not been located within translations of original Buddhist texts;
2. The hierarchical presentation of the triguna is consistent with theoretical concepts of the qualitative nature of material phenomena in general, such as the lower modes being represented by more dense, coarse or grievous qualities whilst the higher mode is represented by more uncomplicated, tranquil and blissful qualities. The triguna is therefore considered superior in its theoretical structure, meaning it can more easily be applied to data analysis and interpretation; and
3. Vedic general and specific conclusions about the effect of different guna characteristics on the individual’s consciousness maintain greater
consolidation i.e. the conceptual organisation of the role that the gunas play in determining mental, intellectual and behavioural peculiarities is considered more coherent and fastidious than the organisation of Abhidharma factors.
In preparation for data collection and processing, Chapter Three will bring together into a single framework Vedic and Buddhist methodology and methods selected to meet the thesis objective.
CHAPTER THREE
CONSTRUCTING A FRAMEWORK FOR DATA COLLECTING AND PROCESSING
Materialist ontology is simply too impoverished to accommodate consciousness. David H. Lund in “Materialism and the Subject of Consciousness” (2000, 7)
Chapter Outline
Chapter Three describes the thesis data collection and processing. A theoretical framework is built consisting of all theoretical and methodological components that will serve to satisfy the thesis objective. Chapter Three aims to provide the reader with a broad overview, as well as detailed explanation of how overarching goals of the thesis, its theoretical foundations and the data-collection and processing
methodology all fit together. Explanations are given as to why different data will be collected and processed in the way that is planned.