indispensable ingredient in the Latin rock flavor of Carlos Santana of the 1970s and 1980s. Second, all the groups Peraza played with for any length of time (the Conjunto Kubavana, George Shearing, Cal Tjader, and Santana) achieved tremendous success in different epochs, locales, and styles. It is safe to say that this shared success was due in large mea- sure to the presence of Armando Peraza in each of these musical groups. Peraza’s career as a master drummer demonstrates not only his technical excellence and musical adaptability but the importance of his “Latin tinge” in American popular music (fig. 3).
Armando Peraza Hernández was born in the La Víbora district of the city of Havana in 1924. Or so his official papers state. But as was the case among poor people in Cuba at that time, his family did not register him as soon as he was born. Thus, the date of his actual birth is a bit of mystery, although he clearly remembers playing in the street as a boy just before the famous 1926 hurricane. It is possible that he was then eight or ten years old, so that his actual date of birth might be sometime between 1914 and 1916. Whatever the case, his childhood was a diffi- cult one: while still an infant he lost both his father and his mother, and he was raised by poor friends and relatives during difficult economic times.1From an early age, Armando came into contact with popular expressions of Cuban music: Arsenio Rodríguez rehearsed his conjunto in the neighborhood, and Armando became friends with bolerista José Antonio Méndez and with the legendary rumbero Roberto Torriente.2
No one could have predicted that Armando Peraza would become a professional musician. For one thing, hard times required him to make a living as a street vendor of vegetables and fruits as a young teenager. Five days a week he would push a heavy cart from La Víbora to El Vedado and back—a forty-kilometer round-trip—hawking his mer- chandise. But also, he seemed more interested in sports such as baseball and boxing than in music. Peraza was a good ball player, playing second base and shortstop; he was also a good hitter who usually occupied the second or third spot on the batting line up. He played in semipro leagues, often for the team sponsored by the Ruta 23 bus lines.3Some of the other
players from those leagues, such as Alejandro Crespo and Avelino Cañizares, would go on to become stars in the Cuban professional base- ball leagues.4Yet Peraza had also started playing percussion—first on wooden boxes, then bongos and congas. He soon became known in his neighborhood and his reputation began to spread. José Antonio Mén- dez, who had a program on radio station Mil Diez, invited Peraza to join his group for a live broadcast. And in 1944, Alberto Ruiz asked Ar- mando to join his Conjunto Kubavana to play congas—or “conga,” since no one was playing more than one conga except in nightclub shows.5Armando Peraza bought a tumbadora for $6 (pesos) and soon be-
came known as a formidable percussionist. When the conjunto’s bongo drummer Cándido Requena left to join the Conjunto Niágara, Ar- mando, who had been impressed with Patato Valdés (at that time work- ing for the Sonora Matancera), convinced Alberto Ruiz to hire Patato to
Figure 3. Armando Peraza (left) with author. Personal collection of the author.
play congas while Armando would take over the bongo-campana duties. Patato and Armando became an immediate hit. A fun-loving pair, sometimes they would warm up for live radio broadcasts by joining in the rehearsals of Havana’s top carnival street bands.
The next few years were very busy. Armando played steadily for the Conjunto Kubavana at the Zombie Nightclub, usually every night from 9 p.m. to 4 a.m. The Kubavana Conjunto competed for dancing audiences with the Orquesta Casino de la Playa, the Arsenio Rodríguez Conjunto, Orquesta Melodías del 40, and Arcaño y Sus Maravillas. Weekend dances at La Tropical featured mano-a-mano performances between Conjunto Kubavana with Armando Peraza and Sonora Piñón with bongosero Yeyito.6Sometimes Peraza would be called to replace percussionist Evelio at the Faraón Club show, sit in for Mongo Santa- maría at the Los Dandys show at the Sans Souci, take over for Marino with the Conjunto Bolero, or play congas for Paulina Alvarez, “Em- peratriz del Danzonete” (Empress of the Danzonette). There were recording sessions with Dámaso Pérez Prado, who was still in Havana, or bongo playing as quinto in the shows of famed rumba columbia dancer Chamba.
Peraza’s first recording, Rumberito with Conjunto Kubavana, in which he soloed on bongos, brought him to the attention of everyone in the Havana music business. A major recording, Rumba en el patio, would follow. By this time, Armando Peraza had established himself as one of the outstanding bongo players in a city that boasted of the likes of Marino, Yeyito, Cándido Requena, Chocolate Alfonso, Lázaro “Man- teca,” Mongo Santamaría, Papa Gofio, Abuelito, Yiyo, Marcelo el Blanco, and others. Armando was nicknamed “Mano de Plomo” (Hands of Lead) because of his heavy sound. Famed Havana conguero Tata Güines preferred to call him “Mano de Hierro” (Iron Hands).7
Through these years, Armando played straight-ahead Cuban dance music, often for tourists. There were jazz groups in Havana and some terrific local jazz musicians. But congas and bongos were not yet part of the jazz band format.
In late 1947, Mongo Santamaría asked Armando to come to Mexico City. Travel back and forth between Mexico City and Havana was common for musicians. After all, the two cities were like “sisters when it came to dancing and singing,” in the words of Beny Moré’s “Bonito y sabroso” tune. Already in the 1930s, the great Ignacio Villa (“Bola de Nieve”) had gained fame and prestige in the Aztec capital. Acerina, who settled there permanently, helped develop the very special Mexi- can danzón styles. Mariano Mercerón y Sus Muchachos Pimienta made Mexico City their home base. In the 1940s, a number of other artists had come to the Federal District of Mexico to record and work in the very active nightlife of the city. Miguel Matamoros brought his conjunto, which included a young Beny Moré. Dámaso Pérez Prado organized his orchestra and launched his mambo craze from there. Percussionist Silvestre Méndez (author of “Yiri yiri bon”) also came and stayed.
Armando arrived in Mexico City to help Mongo, who had fallen ill while performing for the revue Pablito y Lilón in the Mexican metrop- olis. There he joined Mongo in the popular group Clave de Oro.8The
Mexico City chapter lasted about six months.
In May 1948, Armando Peraza arrived in New York City at the be- hest of Federico Pagani, manager of the Palladium. Both Armando and Mongo came to the Big Apple with the revue Los diamantes negros, which opened soon thereafter at the Teatro Hispano in Harlem, mov- ing later to the Havana Madrid on 49th and Broadway. During his first stay in New York City, Armando lived in a boardinghouse on 135th Street between 7th and 8th Avenues. Aside from playing at the Teatro Hispano and the Havana Madrid, he sometimes sat in with the Machito band at the Palladium. Shortly after his arrival, he participated in a recording of “Tanga” with Mario Bauzá, Charlie Parker, Flip Philips, and Chico O’Farrill as the arranger.9
Armando and Mongo soaked in the musical atmosphere of New York City. They watched Chano Pozo entertain audiences at the Apollo Theater. Peraza also played with guitarist Slim Gaillard, who asked him to join his combo. With the four-piece group of Slim Gail-
lard, Armando toured the United States beginning in late 1948. The group played in Chicago, Kansas City, San Francisco, Baltimore, and the Deep South. Armando fell in love with the City by the Bay, and fol- lowing some disagreements with Gaillard, he settled in San Francisco in the early 1950s. At the time he resided on Pine Street, near Page. In that period we find Armando Peraza with the group the Afro-Cubans, the house band at the Cable Car Village.
The locale was an artists’ hangout. José Ferrer, Ricardo Montalban, Rita Hayworth, and other celebrities could often be seen on the prem- ises. The Afro-Cubans put up a colorful show, complete with fluores- cent lights on the congas and even on Armando’s playing fingers. The group included the Mexican American Durán brothers (Manuel and Carlos) as well as Bay Area legend timbalero Benny Velarde and trum- peter Allan Smith. Vocalists included veteran Sonora Matancera singer Israel del Pino and Juanita Puente. The group traveled up and down California with a repertory that included Mexican as well as Cuban music.
Armando’s reputation grew rapidly in the Bay Area and beyond. On occasion he played with African American jazz musicians, such as Art Tatum, in the Fillmore, and he sat in with Miguelito Valdés during the
sonero’s visits to the Fairmont Hotel. He came in contact with Cal Tjader, with whom he would soon record Ritmo caliente for the Fan- tasy label in 1954.
Bassist Al McKibbon, who had played with Chano Pozo and was touring with George Shearing, persuaded the latter to hire Armando to replace Cándido Camero, who was leaving to form a group of his own. From the early 1950s to the early 1960s, Armando would accompany the George Shearing Quintet during a successful eleven-year period. Armando Peraza was “Shearing’s formula for success.”10 Al McKib-
bon, Emil Richards, and Toot Thielmans rounded out the quintet. The group issued a number of highly successful Latin jazz albums begin- ning with Latin Escapade, then Latin Lace, Mood Latino, and Latin Ren-
Latin Affair.Through these recordings, the jazz and Latin music audi- ences began to recognize the smooth, almost lyrical feel of Armando Peraza’s bongo and conga phrases. The clarity and strength of his sound was heard in other Shearing albums, including Shearing on Stage,
San Francisco Scene, On the Sunny Side of the Strip,and George Shearing
and the Montgomery Brothers.Armando Peraza’s own compositions can be found throughout the LPs produced during his association with Shearing, such as “Jackie’s Mambo,” “My New Mambo,” and others.
During this period, Armando continued to be sought after for recordings by other bands. He recorded for Mongo Santamaría’s albums
Mongo, Our Man in Havana,and Sabroso—all of which included Ar- mando’s compositions as well (“Chequerequecheque,” “Barandanga,” and “Saoco”). He played and/or recorded with Buddy Collette, Pérez Prado, Eartha Kitt, Max Roach, Kenny Clark, Art Blakey, Tony Wil- liams, and Walfredo de los Reyes. He recorded again with Cal Tjader in
Más Ritmo Caliente (1957) and In a Latin Bag (1961). With Shearing, he traveled around the world, playing in Germany, Scandinavia, England, France, and Australia. He also managed a brief visit with his family in Cuba in 1959.
After Mongo Santamaría left the Cal Tjader Quintet to form his own
charangagroup in the early 1960s, Armando joined an ensemble with which he was quite familiar. With Cal Tjader, he toured the United States and Puerto Rico. In 1965, Cal Tjader recorded what would be- come a classic of Afro-Cuban jazz: the hit album Soul Sauce, which in- cluded a swinging version of Chano Pozo’s “Wachi Waro.” For years to come, this tune would become the group’s signature as they played in jazz clubs across the United States. Peraza’s drums can be heard in every tune on the album, which includes his own “Maramoor.” The ensemble sound of Tjader’s vibes and Peraza’s congas became popular, and it in- fluenced later groups. During Peraza’s association with Cal Tjader, the Skye label also produced an album, Wild Thing, under Peraza’s name.
By the end of the 1960s, Peraza had become an outstanding figure in the city of San Francisco, a member of an informal culture of artists
that included Gabor Szabo, the Brazilian guitarist Bola Sete, West Montgomery, and rock bands such as the Jefferson Airplane and the Grateful Dead. In the early 1970s, after several successful years with Cal Tjader, Armando joined Mongo Santamaria’s Afro-Cuban jazz ensemble. With Mongo, he traveled to the Montreux Jazz Festival, where they recorded a sensational live performance in 1971. During this time, Armando also performed and recorded occasionally with other artists in a non–Latin jazz mode, including Jerry Garcia, blues stylist John Lee Hooker, and “Queen of Soul” Aretha Franklin. He also played percussion for the soundtrack of the film Che, starring Omar Sharif. Before the end of the seventies, he had recorded with Gato Bar- bieri, Alice Coltrane, and John McLaughlin.
By now, Armando Peraza had succeeded as a percussionist in Afro- Cuban folkloric ensembles playing both congas and bongos (and even
batáon rare instructional occasions); straight-ahead Afro-Cuban con-
junto dance music; the Latin jazz of Shearing and Tjader; and the Afro-Cuban jazz of Santamaría and others. But there was more to come. After leaving Santamaría, Armando joined forces for what would be a seventeen-year association with Carlos Santana and his Latin rock sound. The move was not a surprise, since members of San- tana’s earlier rhythm sections (such as Chepito Areas) had been fans of Peraza in the Bay Area for years. With Santana, Armando would tour the world once again, only this time with a group of much younger rock musicians. He would record a long series of gold albums (Cara-
vanserai, Lotus, Borboleta, Viva Santana, Amigos,etc.). For Santana, he would play congas, bongos, and occasionally timbales. Santana would include some of Peraza’s compositions too, such as “Gitano” in the 1976
Amigos.(In Spain, guitarist Manzanita included “Gitano” on his album
Espíritu sin nombre,in an arrangement that sounds like an early version of the Gipsy Kings.) Through the late 1970s and the entire decade of the 1980s, Armando Peraza’s conga solos brought audiences to their feet at Santana’s concerts. Especially when joined by master timbalero Orestes Vilató, the sound of Peraza at the lead of the rhythm section of
Santana’s band was a guarantee for success in open-air concerts, as in the memorable Cal Jams of the late 1970s in Southern California.
Armando continued to record with other musicians during this pe- riod. He can be heard as a guest in one cut of Batachanga, an album pro- duced by a number of Cuban-inspired Bay Area musicians including John Santos, Rebecca Mauleon, and Michael Spiro. Forced to retire from the concert circuit in 1991 because of illness, Armando remains active. He has traveled to Europe and Canada to participate in Afro- Cuban percussion clinics. His unique sound can be heard in Linda Ronstadt’s Grammy Award–winning CD Frenesí and in the sound- track of The Mambo Kings.
Armando Peraza recorded his sound on the skins with highly re- spected and widely different artists, from the notable Indian percus- sionist Zakir Hussain to rocker Eric Clapton. One of the most out- standing Cuban percussionists of all time, Peraza was honored at a special Smithsonian Institution event in February 1999. Perhaps the most telling summary of Armando’s artistry was a statement by Puerto Rico’s José Luis Mangual, who played bongos for New York’s Machito orchestra for several decades. Said Mangual: “Peraza is the greatest
bongoseroI’ve ever heard.”11
CARLOS VALDÉS: “PATATO” STYLE
The drum known as conga (or tumbadora) provided the foundation for modern Cuban dance and descarga forms and, later, for most Afro- Cuban jazz music. Indeed, the history of these genres can be read as the history of the famous congueros: Carlos Vidal, Chano Pozo, Cándido Camero, Mongo, Patato Valdés, Armando Peraza, Tata Güines, Fran- cisco Aguabella, Papín, and others.
Among all of these percussionists, Carlos “Patato” Valdés stands out as the musician who, almost single-handedly, defined the function of the conga in the Cuban conjuntos; expanded its role by using more than one drum in dance ensembles; developed original tumbaos to go along
with the larger conga set; and explored to the fullest the melodic and harmonic potential of the conga drums (fig. 4). The jazz public’s identi- fication of Patato Valdés with conga drumming in the United States was capped by his endorsement of the first major maker of Afro-Latin percussion instruments, appropriately named Latin Percussion, which included conga drums of the percussionist’s own design, the famed “Patato-style” congas.
Carlos Valdés Galán was born on November 4, 1926, the son of Carlos Valdés Cuesta and Juana Galán. Young Carlos grew up in the working-class district of Los Sitios in Havana. The elder Carlos Valdés worked in construction and in a moving agency. His mother, Juana, also earned a living outside the home. She worked in a cleaning business where she mostly ironed clothes. Carlos Jr. completed only the sixth grade and, by all indications, would take up carpentry or work in an auto body shop to earn a living. He received no formal mu- sic training.12
However, his was a profoundly musical family. Carlos Valdés Sr. had been a member of El Paso Franco, one of the choral guaguancó en- sembles that emerged in Havana after the turn of the century. In 1916, he organized one of the first son groups ever to play in Havana: the Agrupación de Son Los Apaches. Carlos Valdés Sr. played tres and
marímbula for Los Apaches. He is credited with teaching Alfredo Boloña (founder of the seminal Sexteto Boloña) the secrets of the tres. According to Patato, two of Carlos Valdés Sr.’s tunes—“Maldita timi- dez” and “No me desprecies mujer”—would become popular in the 1920s. Los Apaches underwent several permutations until some of the original members formed the famed Sexteto Habanero, the first group to record the son. For Carlos Valdés Jr., the conservatory was at home: from his father (and an older brother) he learned to play tres,
marímbula,and maracas. He learned rumba grooves playing on cajones (boxes).
From an early age, Carlos Valdés Jr. became familiar with the tradi- tions, chants, and music of Santería (although he would not learn to play batá drums until much later). He joined, as his father had done be- fore, a local Abakuá juego (Usagaré Mutanga) and learned the intrica- cies of the bonkó enchemiyá, the lead drum of the society’s ceremonies. This connection to Santería and the Abakuá provided, together with Valdés’s home and the immediate neighborhood of Los Sitios (known for its famous rumberos), a rich, if informal, musical culture.13
Out of school, Patato Valdés worked delivering milk and bread. As a teenager, he passed the time playing congas for fun in the popular
comparsas(street bands) of the Havana carnival. He played with Las