Estado actual del desarrollo de los Simuladores Quirúrgicos en Cuba

Finally this chapter turns its attention to the wider issue of the movement of Buddhism and Dvaravati culture into the region by using sema as a case study. It traces the spread and routes of transmission of this religion and culture highlighting its

dependence on pre-existing settlement patterns and river systems. It also shows that a number of Buddhist centres emerge from this study.

4.1 The Khorat Plateau

The Khorat Plateau as defined in this thesis encompasses the regions of Northeast Thailand and the lowland areas of Vientiane and Savannakhet provinces of Laos (figs.

4.1a, 4.1b, 4.1c). This definition is arrived at, not by the limits and boundaries created by modern nation states, but on the natural topography of the region itself. The modern international border between Thailand and Laos centring on the Mekong River

actually distorts the geographical homogeneity of the region. Furthermore, sema and Dvaravati culture in general were not subjected to this division and were free to spread along both sides of this river system. In actuality, the Mekong River should be seen as a vital route of trade, transport and communication as opposed to a modern boundary between nation states.

Interestingly, Thongchai Winichakul (2004) points out that until the arrival of British and French colonial powers into the region, which brought with them the modern technology of mapping, the Thais and Burmese in particular did not conceive of boundaries in the sense of a dividing line drawn on a map. Instead, they viewed their borders as more fluid spheres of influence based around local towns or settlements.

That territories could overlap, which was often the case on both sides of the Mekong region, was not seen as in any way conflicting or contradictory.

Figure 4.1a: Map showing the modern day boundaries, provincial capitials, road, rail and river sytems of the Khorat Plateau.

Figure 4.1b: Topographic map showing the Khorat Plateau encompassing modern day northeast

Figure 4.1c: Satellite image showing the Khorat Plateau and its surrounding regions.

Northeast Thailand, or Isan (ภากอีสาน in Thai) as it is more commonly known, is the largest region in Thailand making up about one third of the country’s total area.

Modern day Thailand itself covers a total area of 513,000 square kilometres with northeast Thailand making up 170,000 square kilometres (Kermel-Torres 2004, 28, 161). The lowland area of Vientiane Province makes up an area of approximately 15,927 square kilometres while the area of Savannakhet is approximately 21,774 square kilometres. Therefore, the total area of the Khorat Plateau, and subsequently the study area of this thesis is approximately 207,701 square kilometres.

The Khorat Plateau lies at an average height of about 170 metres above sea level and dominates the physical geography of the area. The majority of the plateau lies at a height of about 90 to 200 metres above sea level with its lowest point, located around the area of modern day Ubon Ratchathani, lying at no more than 60 metres above sea level (Pendleton 1962, 43). The Plateau is bordered by the Phetchabun and Dang Raek Mountains ranges to the west and south respectively and to the north and east by the Truong Son Cordillera in central and southern Laos (figure 4.1a). The plateau itself is formed of sub-horizontal Mesozoic sandstone which slopes in the general direction of northwest to southeast (Kermel-Torres 2004, 28). Its colour is usually a red or violet hue (Pendleton 1962, 56) as can be seen in a number of examples of sema.

Furthermore, the relatively plentiful availability of sandstone is an important factor to bear in mind when attempting to explain the proliferation of sema throughout this region.

Unlike the central plains of Thailand which are blessed with a great alluvial plain drained by the Chao Phraya River and criss-crossed by various other lesser waterways which as a result provide excellent conditions for rice cultivation, the Khorat Plateau on the other hand is comparatively ill-suited for this type of agriculture (Kawaguchi &

Kyuma 1977, 26-33). Soils are poor in quality and prone to salinity. Furthermore, rainfall throughout the region is irregular and can cause a combination of drought and flooding at various times throughout the year (Kermel-Torres 2004, 162). The latter factor means that the low lying flood plains of the major rivers would have been difficult areas in which to settle, at least until sufficient water management

technologies were developed (Higham & Thosarat 1998, 18). The lower terraces and stream tributaries with their less severe flooding, on the other hand provided more

It is unsurprising therefore, that the majority of archaeological sites, from prehistory to the Dvaravati period, are located along tributaries or within close proximity to the Chi, Mun and Middle Mekong river systems (see section 4.5 below). This settlement pattern has remained relatively unchanged until present day with the majority of villages, towns and provincial centres still located on or close to major rivers. As Kawaguchi and Kyuma (1977, 27) point out, in Southeast Asia one-third of the potentially arable land is alluvial lowlands, and this necessitates that these areas be cultivated for rice crops. Furthermore, fieldwork and archaeological surveys over the past fifty years (FAD 1959, 1973, 1990) or so have by and large confirmed this with few moated sites for instance being found in areas not closely located to river systems.

4.1.1 The Chi River System

The Chi river system rises in the Phetchabun mountain range to the east of the modern town of the same name and flows south towards Chaiyapoom Province before moving northeast towards the modern day city of Khon Kaen. From here it takes on a

southeasterly course, passing through the provinces of Mahasarakham, Kalasin, Roi Et and Yasothon respectively before joining the Mun River, the confluence being located some 10 kilometres or so west of the city of Ubon Ratchatani. Its total length is approximately 450 kilometres.

Due to the climatic and geomorphological conditions that exist in the Khorat Plateau, the Chi river system has always been highly susceptible to severe flooding. The low terraces in particular are rich in alluvial and semi alluvial deposits with poor drainage and low fertility. Rice therefore, is the only suitable crop available to be cultivated, particularly during the rainy season. Similarly, soil types on the middle and high terraces also produce low yields of rice (Lam Pao Project 1978, 8-9). Despite these factors the Chi river system, cutting a roughly diagonal path across the middle of the Khorat Plateau, provides essential water resources and opportunities for agricultural cultivation and serves as a vital conduit for the human habitation of this region.

4.1.2 The Mun River System

The southern part of Isan is dominated by the Mun river system, which measures approximately 673 kilometres in length. Originating in the San Kamphaeng Mountain

northeasterly direction towards the modern city of Nakorn Ratchasima. After this, it flows in an easterly direction through the provinces of Buriram, Surin, Sri Saket and Ubon Ratchathani respectively before joining the Mekong River at the modern day town of Khong Chiam. As with the Chi River in central Isan, the Mun River represents an important geographical feature, which to a large extent has defined settlement patterns and agricultural possibilities from antiquity to the present day.

Constant risk of flooding coupled with the need to preserve and manage water resources has resulted in settlements, both moated and unmoated, in the Mun River system being located on three different zones (Moore 1988, 60-61). These zones have been classified by Moore (1988) as floodplain, low, and upper terrace areas. Taking the provinces of Buriram and Nakorn Ratchasima as an example, Moore points out that in the latter province thirty percent of sites are located on the floodplain while fifty-five percent are located on the low-middle terraces. In Buriram, only eleven percent of sites are located on the floodplain while seventy-five percent are located on the low-middle terrace (Moore 1988, 61-62, fig. 4.8). Moore’s research therefore, clearly illustrates the close relationship between settlement patterns and the Mun river system.

Figure 4.2: The Mun River at Phimai.

4.1.3 The Middle Mekong

Northern Isan and central Laos are geographically dominated by the Mekong River, which today forms the modern border between Thailand and Laos. However, as discussed previously, geographically speaking this divide is an artificial one, resulting more from European colonial expansion into former Indochina than cultural or

ecological factors. Therefore, it is unsurprising that we find evidence for the sema tradition on both sides of this river system.

In this thesis, the term ‘Middle Mekong’ is employed to describe the area of the Mekong river system and its tributaries, flowing from Vientiane province in central Laos to Pakse in Champassak province of southern Laos. This stretch of the Mekong therefore, encompasses locations such as Loei, Udon Thani and Nong Khai provinces and the Sakon Nakorn Basin of Thailand, the lowland areas of Vientiane province in central Laos and Savannakhet province in southern Laos. The total length of this area of the Mekong River is approximately 900 kilometres.

The north of Isan is largely characterised by the Phetchabun mountain range to the west and the Sakon Nakorn Basin to the east, both of which are bordered by the Mekong River to the north. The Sakon Nakorn Basin is bordered to the south by the Phu Phan Mountain Range, which at its highest point reaches an elevation of 666 metres. The basin itself is drained by the Songkhram River and its tributaries the Lam Nam Yam River and the Huai Nam River and eventually drains into the Mekong River. The modern basin is characterised by paddy fields and swamps, while the Phu Phan Mountain Range is still relatively densely forested (Kermel-Torres 2004, 164).

The physical geography of the Sakon Nakon Basin sub-region therefore, makes it much more unsuitable for substantial rice cultivation than the areas of the Mun and Chi river systems and is today characterised by the growing of cash crops. This fact is further emphasised by the much lower numbers of both sema locations and Dvaravati period moated sites throughout this sub-region (see section 4.2 and 4.6 below).

Vientiane Province is dominated by the Mekong River to the south and the Nam Ngum River to the north which flows southward and meanders through the centre of the province before draining into the Mekong close to the modern Thai town of Phon

relatively small area being lowland. It is within this lowland area, particularly along the Nam Ngum and Mekong Rivers that we find evidence for the sema tradition.

Overall therefore, the Khorat Plateau represents a distinct geographical zone within the area of modern day northeast Thailand and central/southern Laos. Characterised by poor soils and unpredictable rainfall, ancient settlements therefore had to locate themselves primarily along the lower terraces of the Mun, Chi and Mekong rivers or on their tributaries. It was in these locations therefore, where there were rich alluvial soils and manageable flood regimes, that agriculture could successfully take place. As a result these river systems came to dominate the direction and spread of the cultures that took hold within the region. By the Dvaravati period in particular, the

predominance of these rivers is clear to see with the vast majority of moated settlements and earthen mounds being located within alluvial floodplains. It should come as no surprise therefore, that over the centuries the Khorat Plateau has developed its own customs, traditions and particular sense of identity, and to this day still

maintains a large degree of cultural autonomy.