MODULE 2
Unit 1 Conflict Escalation
Unit 2 Perspective and Approaches to Peacemaking Unit 3 Conflict Resolution in International Relations Unit 4 Methods of Conflict Analysis
Unit 5 Anger Management
UNIT 1 CONFLICT ESCALATION
3.0 MAIN BODY 3.1 Conflict Escalation
Escalation of violence is often described as a security dilemma, the situation that occurs when both sides attempt to pre-empt aggression by the other. Information failures, in which neither side is precisely sure of the plans or intentions of the other, lead defensive actions by order to be perceived as offensive by the other. Leaders believe that they have no other choice than to match or surpass actions taken by the other, leading to a cycle that can quickly spinout of control (Posen). Kriesberg attributes such a spiral of violence to the logic of contentious interaction; a mutual expectation by the conflicting parties that the other side is only targeting at power and therefore, the only way they can be prevented is by even greater coercion. When a side thus increases the pressure, such expectations become self-fulfilled. The rise in terror and the toll of violence also leads to the expansion of the issues (or the addition of new issues under contention. Whereas before violence begins a disputed territory can seem perfectly divisible, as a result of the fighting the disputed land may be endowed with symbolic value and be prized even more since denying it to the enemy is in itself gratifying.
Escalating conflicts are also dangerous because conflicts can get out of control;
fewer and fewer alternatives for action are available;
violence is increasingly viewed as potential action and used;
victory or defeat of the opponent is pushed into the foreground and no longer the search for common solutions;
the conflict becomes personal;
emotions take the upper hand;
destruction and extermination become the main objective of action.
Friedrich Glasl defines nine stages of conflict escalation to describe the dynamics of escalation.
A central task within the framework of constructively dealing with conflicts is to compare escalations in conflict with the various stages of de-escalation, and find answers and potential for action at all stages, in order to limit violence or exclude it altogether and make cooperation and solutions for negotiating the aim. Sensitivity and a realistic perception of the events of the conflict are just as important.
3.2 The Nine Stages of Conflict Escalation According to Friedrich Glasl
1. Calcification: standpoints calcify and take on a collision course. Awareness of the impending impact leads to agitation. Despite this, the conviction still remains that tension can be dissipated through discussion. The parties or positions are still mobile.
2. Debate: polarization of thought, emotion and will takes place. Thinking in terms of black and white occurs along with a viewpoint of superiority and inferiority.
3. Action: the idea that ‘talking no longer helps’ and the strategy of fait accompli gains in importance. Empathy for the ‘other side’ diminishes, and the danger of wrong interpretations grows.
4. Images/Coalitions: rumors spread, stereotypes and clichés are formed. The parties maneuver each other into negative positions and fight. A search for supporters takes place.
5. Loss of face: open and direct aggression (unlawful) ensues which aims to cause the opponent’s loss of face.
6. Threat as a strategy: threats and counter threats increase.
Escalation of the conflict accelerates due to ultimatums being made.
7. Limited attempts to overthrow the opponent: the opponent is no longer viewed as a person. Limited attempts to overthrow the opponent are seen as a ‘fitting’
and carried out. Reciprocating values: relatively slight personal damage is seen as a victory.
8. Dissipation: the destruction and dissolution of the hostile system is pursued intensively as a goal.
9. Together into the abyss: total confrontation ensues and there is no way back. Extermination of the opponent at the price of self-extermination is seen as accepted.
3.3 Conflict as a case study.
Two teachers act out an argument. For example, we like to use an argument concerning which teacher is supposed to teach the next part of
the lesson: accusations fly and an argument ensues. This conflict should escalate into insults and eventually into a fight (or with one teacher storming out of the room.) You can incorporate interrupting, name calling, lying, talking at the same time, disrespect, yelling, and violating confidentiality (spilling secrets). Try to end the fight with a physical threat, after which you pause, break character and discuss what just happened. Make sure to define the action as a conflict.
1. Conflicts have different stages.
a. The Cause -- an obviously minor problem b. Accusation
c. Defense -- counter-accusation
d. Verbal arguments which escalate into physical confrontation.
3.4 Brainstorming Escalators
A. Attempt to create a definition for escalation. A conflict escalator is something which causes a conflict to get more intense, more quickly. In other words (that the students will remember), an escalator makes the problem worse. Examine what are some actions or conditions which cause conflicts to escalate. (These are the arrows on the staircase. An escalator makes the situation rise on the conflict staircase.) You may want to start the brainstorming session by asking the following questions: What caused the conflict to get worse?
B. Ask the students what did each person do to cause the conflict to escalate
(i.e., not listening, insults, “getting into each other’s faces ...”
C. What are some other “escalators” that make conflicts intensify?
Some examples are provided below.
Fear Pressure Weapons Pride
Drugs Peer Alcohol Self-esteem
Bad Communication
other
Tone of voice Facial Expressions
Body language
Proximity to the actor
3.5 Brainstorming De-Escalators
A. Students will examine what are some actions or conditions which cause conflicts to de-escalate. Ask the students what are some different courses that could have been taken so that the fight between the two teachers could have been avoided. Go through the “steps” of the staircase, asking students each step what could have been done to resolve the conflict at that point. Emphasize that you have the choice to resolve conflicts at any point in the argument. Ask the students to suggest ways in which conflicts can be resolved. We will call these things de-escalators. Conflict de-escalators help to keep the conflict from getting worse and sometimes even resolve conflicts.
B. Ask the students what could each person do in order to resolve the conflict (i.e., listening, compromising, thinking from the other person’s point of view...”)? Write these on the board.
C. Write a list of these de-escalators on the board. Some examples are provided below.
-Listening -Relaxing -Tone of Voice -Thinking from the other
person’s POV
-Compromise -Respect
-Letting the other -Not telling the other person person speak that they are ‘wrong’
3.6 Role-Play
The goal of this activity is to examine how different escalators & de- escalators affect a conflict.
A. Short Role Play: This role play takes place in the cafeteria.
Student A always sits in a particular seat, but one day s/he arrives to find that Student B has taken his seat.
B. In the first scene, there is no escalation. The conflict begins with student A saying to student B “you took my seat”, but does not escalate. One of the teachers stops the scene and says that it needs something else.
C. She/he decides to throw in an escalator and asks the class for a suggestion from the list the board.
The teacher’s role plays the same scenario, using the escalators. The students should observe how this escalator changes the dynamics of the situation. Stop role-playing when the conflict has escalated to a sufficient point and discuss with the class how the escalator affected the conflict. Were the initial escalators the only ones used? Did the initial escalators lead to new escalators? How? How did the actors react to the escalators?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The nature of conflict requires that if we have to achieve a reasonable measure in solving the problem, then there is the need to be very careful.
This could be the reason why we often run into problems or get confused we conflicts occur or we run into one. The stages outlined above could therefore be of help in understanding conflict escalation situations.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have treated conflict escalation, stages of conflict escalation, conflict as a case study, Brainstorming escalation, brainstorming de-escalation and role play.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. How do specific escalators make a situation worse?
2. Give reasons why conflict escalation is dangerous.
3. Discuss the 9 stages of conflict escalation according to Friedrich Glasl.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Gur, Ted and Charles Rutenberg (1967) The Conditions of Civil Violence: First Test of Causal model, Princeton, University
UNIT 2 PERSPECTIVES AND APPROACHES TO